Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

  • Psychological enquiry has five goals:

    • Description: Capturing behaviour precisely, distinguishing it via operational definitions.

    • Prediction: Discovering relationships to forecast future occurrences within a margin of error (e.g., more study predicts higher marks).

    • Explanation: Identifying determinants or causes of behaviour, addressing “why” questions, leading to theories.

    • Control: Influencing behaviour (making it happen, reducing, or enhancing) by manipulating antecedent conditions (e.g., therapies).

    • Application: Using psychological knowledge to improve human life and solve problems (e.g., stress-reduction techniques).

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

  1. Conceptualising a Problem: Narrowing a theme to a researchable question, reviewing literature, and formulating a hypothesis (testable prediction).

  2. Collecting Data: Deciding on participants, method(s) (e.g., observation, experiments), tools (e.g., questionnaires, EEG), and procedure for data collection.

  3. Drawing Conclusions: Organizing, analysing (often statistically), and presenting data (e.g., graphs) to determine if the hypothesis is supported or refuted.

  4. Revising Research Conclusions/Theory: Re-evaluating hypotheses or theories if data contradicts them, leading to further research in an iterative process.

Alternative Paradigms of Research

  • Scientific/Positivist Tradition: Views human behaviour as predictable and measurable, using objective, quantitative methods (e.g., controlled experiments) to find universal laws and cause-effect relationships.

  • Interpretive Tradition: Focuses on subjective meanings, using qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, ethnography) to understand human experience in context.

  • Self-Reflection: Inquiry into personal experiences and introspection to understand individual thoughts, feelings, and motivations.

Nature of Psychological Data

  • Data is always contextual; its interpretation depends on conditions.

  • Types of Psychological Data:

    1. Demographic Data: Age, gender, SES.

    2. Physical/Environmental Data: Surroundings, housing, facilities.

    3. Physiological Data: Heart rate (HR), galvanic skin response (GSR), electroencephalogram (EEG), reaction time.

    4. Psychological Data: Intelligence scores, motivation, values, thoughts, feelings.

  • Representations of Data: Categories, ranks, scores (e.g., 10, 12, 15), verbal reports, archival records.

Major Methods in Psychology

1. Observational Method

  • Systematic and purposeful involving Selection (what, whom, when, where), Recording (tally sheets, notes, video), and Analysis (post-hoc interpretation).

  • Types of Observation:

    • Naturalistic vs Controlled/Laboratory: Real-life vs. manipulated environment.

    • Participant vs Non-Participant: Observer joins group vs. remains separate.

  • Strengths: Ecological validity, rich qualitative data.

  • Limitations: Time-intensive, observer bias, ethical concerns (privacy).

2. Experimental Method

  • Aim: Establish cause ightarrow effect relationships in controlled settings.

  • Key Concepts:

    • Variable: Measurable attribute that varies.

    • Independent Variable (IV): Manipulated cause.

    • Dependent Variable (DV): Measured effect.

    • Groups: Experimental Group(s) (receive IV) and Control Group (baseline for comparison).

  • Controlling Extraneous Variables: Using techniques like matching, elimination, holding constant, counter-balancing, and random assignment to ensure IV causes DV changes.

  • Limitations: Low External Validity (poor generalisability), ethical/feasibility constraints, difficulty controlling all variables.

Field & Quasi Experiments

  • Field Experiment: IV manipulated in a natural setting (higher external validity, less control).

  • Quasi Experiment: Relies on naturally occurring groups/conditions (no random assignment; harder to infer causation).

3. Correlational Research

  • Objective: Assess direction and strength of relationship between variables, used for prediction, not causation.

  • Correlation Coefficient extbf{r}: Ranges from + extbf{1.0
    ightarrow 0.0
    ightarrow -1.0}.

    • Positive Correlation (r>0): Variables move in the same direction.

    • Negative Correlation (r<0): Variables move in opposite directions.

    • Zero Correlation (roldsymbol{\approx}0): No systematic linear relationship.

4. Survey Research

  • Purpose: Document opinions, attitudes, and facts from a large population.

  • Data-Collection Techniques:

    1. Personal Interviews: Structured (fixed questions) or Unstructured (flexible).

    2. Questionnaires: Written items (Open-Ended or Closed-Ended (MCQ, Likert scales)). Low response rates possible.

    3. Telephone/Mobile SMS Surveys: Rapid, wide reach; superficial responses, potential bias.

    4. Controlled Observation within Survey: Additional behavioural data collection.

  • Advantages: Quick, cost-effective for large samples.

  • Limitations: Memory errors, social desirability bias, low cooperation rates.

5. Psychological Testing

  • Definition: A standardised and objective instrument measuring mental/behavioural attributes (e.g., intelligence, personality).

  • Key Psychometric Properties:

    • Objectivity: Uniformity in administration, scoring, interpretation.

    • Reliability: Consistency of scores (Test-retest, Split-half).

    • Validity: Measures what it intends to measure.

    • Norms: Average performance for reference groups, aiding interpretation.

  • Classifications:

    • By Language/Response: Verbal, Non-verbal, Performance.

    • By Administration Mode: Individual, Group.

    • By Difficulty/Time: Speed (easy, strict time), Power (ascending difficulty, ample time).

  • Uses: Selection, placement, guidance, diagnosis in various fields.

6. Case Study Method

  • Definition: In-depth, intensive exploration of a single case (individual, group, event) using multi-method data collection.

  • Sources of Data: Interviews, observations, tests, documents.

  • Notable Examples: Freud, Piaget.

  • Strengths: Rich, detailed, holistic insights into complex/rare phenomena; generates hypotheses.

  • Limitations: Limited generalisability, researcher bias, reliance on meticulous records. Triangulation helps trustworthiness.

Analysis of Data

Quantitative Methods

  • Numeric scores (test scores, frequencies). Uses statistical techniques (mean, r, t-tests) for summary, comparison, and hypothesis testing, enabling objective conclusions.

Qualitative Methods

  • Descriptive, non-numeric data (observations, interviews, diaries), focused on meaning and context.

    • Narrative Analysis: Examines stories to understand experience and identity.

    • Content Analysis: Identifies themes/patterns in text/visual data.

  • Complementarity: Both approaches offer a fuller understanding.

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry (General)

  1. No True Zero Point: Psychological attributes (intelligence, anxiety) lack an absolute zero, making scales relative.

  2. Context-Bound Tools/Findings: Tests/findings from one culture may not apply to others without adaptation.

  3. Subjective Interpretation: Qualitative data interpretation can be biased; multiple investigators/member checking enhance objectivity.

Ethical Issues in Psychological Research

  • Guiding principles: Respect for persons, Beneficence, Justice.

  1. Voluntary Participation: Participants freely choose to participate, with the explicit right to withdraw.

  2. Informed Consent: Comprehensive information about the study (purpose, procedures, risks, benefits) provided before participation.

  3. Debriefing: Full explanation of the study (including deception) after completion, addressing any distress or misconceptions.

  4. Sharing Results with Participants: Good practice to provide findings to participants.

  5. Confidentiality of Data Source: Protecting participant privacy and anonymity (e.g., using code numbers, secure data storage).