Comprehensive Study Guide on Chemical Classifications, International Periodic Table, and Classical Simple Machines

Classification of Matter and Chemical Compounds

• Classification by Composition (Por Composición):

  • Elemental: Substances comprised of a single type of chemical element in its fundamental form.
  • Compuesta (Compound): Chemical substances formed by the combination of two or more distinct chemical elements.

• Classification by Chemical Bond Type (Por Enlaces):

  • Iónico (Ionic): Chemical bonds formed between a metal and a non-metal (Metal + No metal).
  • Covalente (Covalent): Chemical bonds formed between two non-metals (No metal + No metal).

• Classification by Number of Constituent Elements (Según Número de Elementos):

  • Binarios (Binary): Compounds containing exactly two distinct chemical elements. Example: Carbon dioxide ($CO_2$).
  • Ternarios (Ternary): Compounds containing exactly three distinct chemical elements. Example: Sodium hydroxide ($NaOH$).
  • Cuaternarios (Quaternary): Compounds containing exactly four distinct chemical elements. Example: Sodium bicarbonate ($NaHCO_3$).

• Classification by Covalent Bond Multiplicity (Por Tipo de Enlace Covalente):

  • Simple (Single Bond): A covalent bond involving one shared pair of electrons.
  • Doble (Double Bond): A covalent bond involving two shared pairs of electrons.
  • Triple (Triple Bond): A covalent bond involving three shared pairs of electrons.

• Classification by Carbon Presence (Según Presencia de Carbono):

  • Orgánicos (Organic): Compounds containing carbon atoms in their molecular structure (Con carbono).
  • Inorgánicos (Inorganic): Compounds that do not contain carbon atoms (Sin carbono).

• Detailed Classification of Binary Compounds (Clasificación Compuestos Binarios):

  • Compuestos con Oxígeno / Óxidos (Oxygen Compounds / Oxides):
    • Óxidos metálicos (Metallic Oxides): Formed by the chemical combination of a Metal + Oxygen.
    • Óxidos no metálicos (Non-metallic Oxides): Formed by the chemical combination of a Non-metal + Oxygen.
  • Compuestos con Hidrógeno (Hydrogen Compounds):
    • Hidruros (Hydrides): Formed by the combination of a Metal + Hydrogen.
    • Hidrácidos (Hydroacids / Hydracids): Formed by the combination of Hydrogen + Non-metal.
  • Sales Binarias (Binary Salts):
    • Formed by the combination of a Metal + Non-metal.
  • Compuestos Covalentes Binarios (Binary Covalent Compounds):
    • Formed by the combination of a Non-metal + Non-metal.

International Periodic Table of Chemical Elements

• General Organization and Structural Standards:

  • Organized into $18$ vertical Groups and $8$ horizontal Periods.
  • Main element categories include: Elementos Representativos (Representative Elements), Elementos de Transición (Transition Elements), Elementos Tierras Raras (Rare Earth Elements / Lanthanides & Actinides), and Metaloides (Metalloids).
  • Standard IUPAC 2005 Notes: Standard atomic masses (relative atomic masses) follow IUPAC 2005 specifications with uncertainties in the last digit expressed in parentheses: [M.E. Wieser, Pure Appl. Chem., 78, 2051 (2006)]. These values reflect current knowledge of natural terrestrial sources. For elements lacking stable long-lived nuclides, the mass number of the confirmed nuclide with the longest half-life is displayed inside square brackets [...].
  • Elements with atomic numbers $113$ and higher ($Z \ge 113$) have been reported but not fully authenticated.
  • Helium Specific Note: Helium ($He$) possesses electrons residing in the s-subshell, with a ground-state electron configuration corresponding to $1s^2$.

• Group 1 Elements (Period 1 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $1$: $H$ - Hidrógeno, Standard Atomic Weight: $1.00794$
  • Atomic Number $3$: $Li$ - Litio, Standard Atomic Weight: $6.941(2)$
  • Atomic Number $11$: $Na$ - Sodio, Standard Atomic Weight: $22.98976928(2)$
  • Atomic Number $19$: $K$ - Potasio, Standard Atomic Weight: $39.0983(1)$
  • Atomic Number $37$: $Rb$ - Rubidio, Standard Atomic Weight: $85.4678(3)$
  • Atomic Number $55$: $Cs$ - Cesio, Standard Atomic Weight: $132.9054519(2)$
  • Atomic Number $87$: $Fr$ - Francio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[223]$

• Group 2 Elements (Period 2 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $4$: $Be$ - Berilio, Standard Atomic Weight: $9.012182(3)$
  • Atomic Number $12$: $Mg$ - Magnesio, Standard Atomic Weight: $24.3050(6)$
  • Atomic Number $20$: $Ca$ - Calcio, Standard Atomic Weight: $40.078(4)$
  • Atomic Number $38$: $Sr$ - Estroncio, Standard Atomic Weight: $87.62(1)$
  • Atomic Number $56$: $Ba$ - Bario, Standard Atomic Weight: $137.327(7)$
  • Atomic Number $88$: $Ra$ - Radio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[225]$

• Group 3 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $21$: $Sc$ - Escandio, Standard Atomic Weight: $44.955912(6)$
  • Atomic Number $39$: $Y$ - Itrio, Standard Atomic Weight: $88.90585(2)$
  • Atomic Number $57$: $La$ - Lantano, Standard Atomic Weight: $138.90547(7)$
  • Atomic Number $89$: $Ac$ - Actinio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[227]$

• Group 4 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $22$: $Ti$ - Titanio, Standard Atomic Weight: $47.867(1)$
  • Atomic Number $40$: $Zr$ - Circonio, Standard Atomic Weight: $91.224(2)$
  • Atomic Number $72$: $Hf$ - Hafnio, Standard Atomic Weight: $178.49(2)$
  • Atomic Number $104$: $Rf$ - Rutherfordio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[261]$

• Group 5 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $23$: $V$ - Vanadio, Standard Atomic Weight: $50.9415(1)$
  • Atomic Number $41$: $Nb$ - Niobio, Standard Atomic Weight: $92.90638(2)$
  • Atomic Number $73$: $Ta$ - Tantalio, Standard Atomic Weight: $180.94788(2)$
  • Atomic Number $105$: $Db$ - Dubnio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[262]$

• Group 6 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $24$: $Cr$ - Cromo, Standard Atomic Weight: $51.9961(6)$
  • Atomic Number $42$: $Mo$ - Molibdeno, Standard Atomic Weight: $95.94(2)$
  • Atomic Number $74$: $W$ - Volframio, Standard Atomic Weight: $183.84(1)$
  • Atomic Number $106$: $Sg$ - Seaborgio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[266]$

• Group 7 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $25$: $Mn$ - Manganeso, Standard Atomic Weight: $54.938045(5)$
  • Atomic Number $43$: $Tc$ - Tecnecio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[97.907]$
  • Atomic Number $75$: $Re$ - Renio, Standard Atomic Weight: $186.207(1)$
  • Atomic Number $107$: $Bh$ - Bohrio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[264]$

• Group 8 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $26$: $Fe$ - Hierro, Standard Atomic Weight: $55.845(2)$
  • Atomic Number $44$: $Ru$ - Rutenio, Standard Atomic Weight: $101.07(2)$
  • Atomic Number $76$: $Os$ - Osmio, Standard Atomic Weight: $190.23(3)$
  • Atomic Number $108$: $Hs$ - Hassio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[277]$

• Group 9 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $27$: $Co$ - Cobalto, Standard Atomic Weight: $58.933195(5)$
  • Atomic Number $45$: $Rh$ - Rodio, Standard Atomic Weight: $102.90550(2)$
  • Atomic Number $77$: $Ir$ - Iridio, Standard Atomic Weight: $192.217(3)$
  • Atomic Number $109$: $Mt$ - Meitnerio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[268]$

• Group 10 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $28$: $Ni$ - Níquel, Standard Atomic Weight: $58.6934(2)$
  • Atomic Number $46$: $Pd$ - Paladio, Standard Atomic Weight: $106.42(1)$
  • Atomic Number $78$: $Pt$ - Platino, Standard Atomic Weight: $195.084(9)$
  • Atomic Number $110$: $Uun$ - Ununilio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[269]$

• Group 11 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $29$: $Cu$ - Cobre, Standard Atomic Weight: $63.546(3)$
  • Atomic Number $47$: $Ag$ - Plata, Standard Atomic Weight: $107.8682(2)$
  • Atomic Number $79$: $Au$ - Oro, Standard Atomic Weight: $196.966569(4)$
  • Atomic Number $111$: $Uuu$ - Unununio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[272]$

• Group 12 Elements (Period 4 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $30$: $Zn$ - Cinc, Standard Atomic Weight: $65.409(4)$
  • Atomic Number $48$: $Cd$ - Cadmio, Standard Atomic Weight: $112.411(8)$
  • Atomic Number $80$: $Hg$ - Mercurio, Standard Atomic Weight: $200.59(2)$
  • Atomic Number $112$: $Uub$ - Ununbio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[277]$

• Group 13 Elements (Period 2 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $5$: $B$ - Boro, Standard Atomic Weight: $10.811$
  • Atomic Number $13$: $Al$ - Aluminio, Standard Atomic Weight: $26.981538$
  • Atomic Number $31$: $Ga$ - Galio, Standard Atomic Weight: $69.723(1)$
  • Atomic Number $49$: $In$ - Indio, Standard Atomic Weight: $114.818(3)$
  • Atomic Number $81$: $Tl$ - Talio, Standard Atomic Weight: $204.3833(2)$
  • Atomic Number $113$: $Uut$ - Ununtrio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[284]$

• Group 14 Elements (Period 2 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $6$: $C$ - Carbono, Standard Atomic Weight: $12.011$
  • Atomic Number $14$: $Si$ - Silicio, Standard Atomic Weight: $28.0855(3)$
  • Atomic Number $32$: $Ge$ - Germanio, Standard Atomic Weight: $72.64(1)$
  • Atomic Number $50$: $Sn$ - Estaño, Standard Atomic Weight: $118.710(7)$
  • Atomic Number $82$: $Pb$ - Plomo, Standard Atomic Weight: $207.2(1)$
  • Atomic Number $114$: $Uuq$ - Ununquadio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[285]$

• Group 15 Elements (Period 2 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $7$: $N$ - Nitrógeno, Standard Atomic Weight: $14.0067$
  • Atomic Number $15$: $P$ - Fósforo, Standard Atomic Weight: $30.973762(2)$
  • Atomic Number $33$: $As$ - Arsénico, Standard Atomic Weight: $74.92160(2)$
  • Atomic Number $51$: $Sb$ - Antimonio, Standard Atomic Weight: $121.760(1)$
  • Atomic Number $83$: $Bi$ - Bismuto, Standard Atomic Weight: $208.98040(1)$
  • Atomic Number $115$: $Uup$ - Ununpentio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[288]$

• Group 16 Elements (Period 2 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $8$: $O$ - Oxígeno, Standard Atomic Weight: $15.9994$
  • Atomic Number $16$: $S$ - Azufre, Standard Atomic Weight: $32.065(5)$
  • Atomic Number $34$: $Se$ - Selenio, Standard Atomic Weight: $78.96(3)$
  • Atomic Number $52$: $Te$ - Teluro, Standard Atomic Weight: $127.60(3)$
  • Atomic Number $84$: $Po$ - Polonio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[208.9824]$
  • Atomic Number $116$: $Uuh$ - Ununhexio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[289]$

• Group 17 Elements (Period 2 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $9$: $F$ - Flúor, Standard Atomic Weight: $18.9984032(5)$
  • Atomic Number $17$: $Cl$ - Cloro, Standard Atomic Weight: $35.453(2)$
  • Atomic Number $35$: $Br$ - Bromo, Standard Atomic Weight: $79.904(1)$
  • Atomic Number $53$: $I$ - Yodo, Standard Atomic Weight: $126.90447(3)$
  • Atomic Number $85$: $At$ - Astato, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[209.9871]$
  • Atomic Number $117$: $Uus$ - Ununseptio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[291]$

• Group 18 Elements (Period 1 to Period 7):

  • Atomic Number $2$: $He$ - Helio, Standard Atomic Weight: $4.002602(2)$ (Electron configuration: $1s^2$)
  • Atomic Number $10$: $Ne$ - Neón, Standard Atomic Weight: $20.1797$
  • Atomic Number $18$: $Ar$ - Argón, Standard Atomic Weight: $39.948(1)$
  • Atomic Number $36$: $Kr$ - Criptón, Standard Atomic Weight: $83.798(2)$
  • Atomic Number $54$: $Xe$ - Xenón, Standard Atomic Weight: $131.293(6)$
  • Atomic Number $86$: $Rn$ - Radón, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[222.0176]$
  • Atomic Number $118$: $Uuo$ - Ununoctio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[293]$

• Period 8 Extended Elements:

  • Atomic Number $119$: $Uue$ - Ununenio, Outer Valence Configuration: $8s^1$
  • Atomic Number $120$: $Ubn$ - Unbinilio, Outer Valence Configuration: $8s^2$
  • Atomic Number $121$: $Ubu$ - Unbiunio, Outer Valence Configuration: $8s^2\,5g^1$

• Rare Earth Elements - Lanthanides / Lanthanoids (Tierras Raras):

  • Atomic Number $58$: $Ce$ - Cerio, Standard Atomic Weight: $140.116(1)$
  • Atomic Number $59$: $Pr$ - Praseodimio, Standard Atomic Weight: $140.90765(2)$
  • Atomic Number $60$: $Nd$ - Neodimio, Standard Atomic Weight: $144.242(3)$
  • Atomic Number $61$: $Pm$ - Prometio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[144.912]$
  • Atomic Number $62$: $Sm$ - Samario, Standard Atomic Weight: $150.36(2)$
  • Atomic Number $63$: $Eu$ - Europio, Standard Atomic Weight: $151.964(1)$
  • Atomic Number $64$: $Gd$ - Gadolinio, Standard Atomic Weight: $157.25(3)$
  • Atomic Number $65$: $Tb$ - Terbio, Standard Atomic Weight: $158.92535(2)$
  • Atomic Number $66$: $Dy$ - Disprosio, Standard Atomic Weight: $162.500(1)$
  • Atomic Number $67$: $Ho$ - Holmio, Standard Atomic Weight: $164.93032(2)$
  • Atomic Number $68$: $Er$ - Erbio, Standard Atomic Weight: $167.259(3)$
  • Atomic Number $69$: $Tm$ - Tulio, Standard Atomic Weight: $168.93421(2)$
  • Atomic Number $70$: $Yb$ - Iterbio, Standard Atomic Weight: $173.054(3)$
  • Atomic Number $71$: $Lu$ - Lutecio, Standard Atomic Weight: $174.9668(1)$

• Actinides / Actinoids:

  • Atomic Number $90$: $Th$ - Torio, Standard Atomic Weight: $232.03806(2)$
  • Atomic Number $91$: $Pa$ - Protactinio, Standard Atomic Weight: $231.03588(2)$
  • Atomic Number $92$: $U$ - Uranio, Standard Atomic Weight: $238.02891(3)$
  • Atomic Number $93$: $Np$ - Neptunio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[237]$
  • Atomic Number $94$: $Pu$ - Plutonio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[244]$
  • Atomic Number $95$: $Am$ - Americio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[243]$
  • Atomic Number $96$: $Cm$ - Curio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[247]$
  • Atomic Number $97$: $Bk$ - Berquelio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[247]$
  • Atomic Number $98$: $Cf$ - Californio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[251]$
  • Atomic Number $99$: $Es$ - Einstenio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[252]$
  • Atomic Number $100$: $Fm$ - Fermio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[257]$
  • Atomic Number $101$: $Md$ - Mendelevio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[258]$
  • Atomic Number $102$: $No$ - Nobelio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[259]$
  • Atomic Number $103$: $Lr$ - Laurencio, Longest Half-Life Mass Number: $[262]$

Physics of Simple Machines and Fundamental Mechanics

• Fundamental Terms and Key Concepts:
  • Potencia (Effort Force / Power): The exact quantity of force that must be applied to operate a mechanical machine.
  • Resistencia (Resistance / Load Force): The force that must be overcome by the machine in order to move a body or object.
  • Punto de apoyo / Fulcro (Support Point / Fulcrum): The designated point or pivot over which the machine moves or rotates, positioned between or relative to the applied effort force (potencia) and the resistance (resistencia).

Detailed Analysis and Classification of Levers

• Definition of Lever (Palanca):

  • A rigid bar that can rotate freely around a fixed support point or axis (barra rígida que puede girar libremente alrededor de un punto de apoyo o eje).

• Three Classes / Genera of Levers:

  • Primer género (First Class / Order):
    • Structural Layout: The support point / fulcrum (Punto de apoyo) is situated between the Resistance (Resistencia) and the Effort Force (Potencia).
    • Specific Examples: Scissors (tijeras), pincers / pincer pliers (tenazas), pliers (alicates).
  • Segundo género (Second Class / Order):
    • Structural Layout: The Resistance (Resistencia) is situated between the support point / fulcrum (Punto de apoyo) and the Effort Force (Potencia).
    • Specific Examples: Wheelbarrow (carretilla), oar (remo), knife (cuchillo), nutcracker pliers (pinza rompenueces).
  • Tercer género (Third Class / Order):
    • Structural Layout: The Effort Force (Potencia) is situated between the support point / fulcrum (Punto de apoyo) and the Resistance (Resistencia).
    • Specific Examples: Ice tongs (pinzas de hielo), fishing rod (caña de pescar).

Specific Types of Simple Machines and Derived Systems

• Plano Inclinado (Inclined Plane):

  • Definition: A rigid plane forming an acute angle relative to the horizontal ground surface.
  • Derived Tools and Machines: Drill bit (broca), wedge (cuña), knife (cuchillo), axe (hacha), saw (sierra), screw (tornillo), nut (tuerca), ramp (rampa), and staircase (escalera).

• Cuña (Wedge):

  • Definition: A mechanical element shaped in the form of a triangle or a double inclined plane, featuring a sharp edge designed to penetrate a body and produce an opening or division.
  • Specific Examples: Axe (hacha), bar (barra), chisel (cincel), knife (cuchillo).

• Tornillo (Screw):

  • Definition: A mechanical device derived directly from the inclined plane. It consists of a cylindrical mechanical element with a head, designed to attach or fasten parts together by means of a torsional force.

• Rueda (Wheel):

  • Definition: A simple machine formed by a round body that rotates with respect to a fixed point called the axis of rotation (eje de giro). It is typically configured alongside a cylindrical axle and a support structure.
  • Derived Simple Machines and Assemblies: Pulleys (poleas), rollers (rodillos), gears (engranes), and wheel trains (tren de ruedas).

• Torno (Winch / Windlass):

  • Definition: A mechanical device composed of a cylinder made of rigid material with a crank handle connected to a central axle. Applying force to the handle causes the cylinder to rotate, thereby winding or spooling a rope or cable around it.

• Poleas (Pulleys):

  • Definition and Mechanism: Mechanical devices consisting of a disk that rotates around a central axis, featuring a channel or groove on its outer rim designed to fit a cable or rope.
  • Operating Principle: Functions as a see-saw or rocker mechanism (balancín): when one side goes up, the opposite side goes down.