Cognitive Processes Exam 2 Study Guide

Alternate Memory Models

  • Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart): Memory is a continuum, with depth of processing impacting recall.

    • Types of Processing: Shallow (Structural, Acoustic) → Deep (Semantic, Self-reference).

    • Greater depth leads to better recall.

    • Rehearsals: Maintenance (weak for LTM) vs. Elaborative (strong for LTM).

  • Episodic vs. Semantic Memory (Tulving):

    • Episodic: Memories tied to time/place.

    • Semantic: General knowledge without time tag.

  • Explicit vs. Implicit Memory:

    • Explicit: Conscious recall; effortful retrieval.

    • Implicit: Unconscious influence of past experiences.

Theories of Forgetting

  • Decay Theory: Memory fades over time without use.

  • Motivated Forgetting: Forgetting due to emotional threats (Freud).

  • Cue-Retrieval Failure: Ineffective cues hinder recall.

  • Interference Theory:

    • Retroactive: New info interferes with old.

    • Proactive: Old info interferes with new.

    • Supported by Mueller & Pilzecker's consolidation findings.

Memory Development in Infants

  • Cognitive Skills: Infants show early memory capabilities.

  • Assessment Techniques:

    • Habituation Procedure: Decreased response to repeated stimuli.

    • Conjugate Reinforcement: Associative learning via kicking.

    • Memory Reactivation: Cues enhance recall.

Piaget's Cognitive Development

  • Stage Theory: Development occurs in distinct stages.

    • Key Terms: Schema, Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibration.

  • Stages:

    1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Lack of object permanence initially, reflexive actions to intentional.

    2. Preoperational (2-7 years): Egocentrism dominates reasoning.

    3. Concrete Operations (7-11 years): Logical thought, limitation in abstract thinking.

    4. Formal Operations (11-15 years): Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.

Memory Across Age Groups

  • Short-Term Memory: Increases from toddler to adult (2 items to 5-9 items).

  • Long-Term Memory: No major recognition differences, but recall differs due to strategic use.

  • Elderly vs. Young Adults: Similar sensory & STM; elderly struggle more with recall due to fewer strategies.

Language Development

  • Milestones:

    • 8 weeks: cooing; 9 months: intentional speech; 18-20 months: two-word stage.

  • Common Errors:

    • Overextensions, Underextensions, Overregularizations.

  • Context Importance: Pragmatics and common ground enhance conversation.

Misleading Information Effects (Loftus)

  • Impact of Misleading Info: Can alter memories of events, strongest effect when info is given shortly after an event.

Problem Solving and Insight

  • Problem Components: Initial state, goal state, and obstacles.

  • Insight vs. Trial-and-Error:

    • Thorndike: Incremental learning; Kohler: sudden insight in problem solving.

  • Functional Fixedness: Difficulty using objects creatively, demonstrated by the Candle Problem.

To help remember the information in your study guide, you can apply several principles from cognitive psychology:

  • Deep Processing: Instead of just rereading (shallow processing), try to understand the meaning of the material, relate it to what you already know, or think about how it applies to real-world examples. This is known as semantic processing, which leads to better recall than structural or acoustic processing. For example, when studying "Levels of Processing," actively try to generate examples for shallow vs. deep processing.

  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Instead of simple repetition (maintenance rehearsal), elaborate on the information. Connect new concepts to existing knowledge, create analogies, or explain the concepts in your own words. This strengthens the memory for long-term retention.

  • Organize Information: Structure your study guide in a logical way. The note already uses headings and bullet points, which helps. When reviewing, try to categorize information. For instance, see if you can group related theories of forgetting.

  • Minimize Interference: Be aware that new information can interfere with old (retroactive interference) and old can interfere with new (proactive interference). Try to space out your study sessions and review different subjects at different times to reduce this effect.

  • Effective Cue-Retrieval: Make sure you have good retrieval cues. When you study, think about how you will need to recall the information during an exam. Practicing recall (e.g., through self-quizzing or flashcards) helps create stronger cues. For instance, ask yourself, "What are Piaget's stages and what defines each?" instead of just rereading their descriptions.