Psychological Research Notes

Psychological Research

Is Psychology a Science?

  • Psychology is a science because it relies on evidence to support and validate claims.
  • It involves proving ideas through study and testing.
  • Psychological research leads to solutions for real-world issues.

Purpose and Theory of Research

  • Purpose: To further investigate and support findings.
  • Reliance on evidence is crucial to validate claims.
  • Examples:
    • Old beliefs: Earth is flat, mental illness is due to possession.
    • Modern approach: Prove ideas through study and testing.
  • Leads to solutions for real-world issues.

Goals of Research

  • Basic Research
    • Seeks new knowledge.
    • Advances general scientific understanding.
  • Applied Research
    • Solves practical problems.
    • Improves quality of life.

Personal Learning from Psychology

  • Leads to critical thinking, which involves objectively evaluating claims, propositions, and conclusions.
  • Elements of Critical Thinking:
    • Independent Thinking: Don't automatically accept and believe everything.
    • Suspension of Judgement: Gather relevant and up-to-date information before taking a position.
    • Willingness to Modify or Abandon Prior Judgements: Evaluate new evidence, even if it contradicts preexisting beliefs.

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

  • Deductive Reasoning:
    • Results are predicted based on a general premise.
    • Example: All living things require energy to survive (premise); ducks are living things; therefore, ducks require energy to survive (conclusion).
  • Inductive Reasoning:
    • Conclusions are drawn from observations.
    • Example: Observing many fruits growing on trees and assuming all fruits grow on trees.

Psychological Research and Reasoning

  • Psychological research relies on both deductive and inductive reasoning.
  • Scientists use inductive reasoning to form theories, which then generate hypotheses.

Scientific Method

  • Steps:
    1. Formulate a Hypothesis: A statement that can be tested.
    2. Design a Study: Determine the best research method.
    3. Collect Data: Find averages and results.
    4. Apply Results to Hypothesis: Accept or reject the hypothesis.
    5. Replication: Needs to be replicated, modified, and/or retested.

Research Methods

  • Ways to evaluate behavior:
    • Naturalistic and Laboratory Observation
    • Case/Clinical Studies
    • Survey Research
    • Correlation Method
    • Experimental

Observation

  • Naturalistic Observation:
    • Observation of behavior in its natural setting.
    • No attempt to influence behavior.
    • Advantages: More accurate and genuine behaviors, eliminates anxiety, less expensive.
  • Laboratory Observation:
    • Studies behavior in a laboratory setting.
    • Allows more control and precise measurement of responses.
    • Disadvantages: More expensive.
  • Observer Bias:
    • Observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations.
    • Clear criteria helps mitigate this.

Surveys

  • Involve interviews and/or questionnaires.
  • Gather information about attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people.
  • Studies a representative sample that mirrors the population of interest.

Case Studies/Clinical Studies

  • Studies a single individual or small number of persons in depth.
  • Advantages: Appropriate for studying rare psychological disorders, brain damage, or other unique behaviors.
  • Disadvantages:
    • Cannot identify the cause of behavior
    • Potential for bias.
    • Results can lack generalizability across various cultures and regions.
Example of a Case Study
  • Genie was studied by psychologists after being found at age 13, having suffered severe abuse and social isolation.
  • Psychologists were interested in the effect social isolation had on her development.

Correlation

  • Measures the degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors.
  • Types of Correlation:
    1. Positive Correlation: Two variables change in the same direction (both increase or both decrease).
    2. Negative Correlation: Two variables change in opposite directions (one increases as the other decreases).
    3. No Correlation: No relationship between the two variables.
  • Correlation does not imply causation.
  • Correlation Coefficient (r):
    • A number from -1 to +1.
    • Indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.
    • The stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are on the line.

More About Correlation

  • Cause-and-Effect Relationship:
    • Changes in one variable cause changes in the other variable; this can be determined only through an experimental research design.
  • Confounding Variable:
    • An unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable cause changes in the other variable.
  • Example:
    • As ice-cream sales increase, so does the overall rate of crime.
    • Temperature is a confounding variable: as temperature increases, ice-cream sales increase, and people are more likely to be outside.

Another Example of Correlation and a Confounding Variable

  • Stress and Illness are correlated.
  • Stress could lead to illness, or illness could lead to stress.
  • A third factor, such as poverty, could underlie both stress and illness.

Experimental Method

  • Identifies cause-and-effect relationships by creating a hypothesis.
  • Components:
    • Independent Variable: A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition.
    • Dependent Variable: A factor or condition measured to determine the impact of the experimental manipulation.

Components of an Experiment

  • Operational Definition: Description of what actions and operations will be used to measure the dependent variables and manipulate the independent variables.
  • Experimental Group: Exposed to the independent variable.
  • Control Group: Exposed to the same experimental environment but not given the independent variable.
  • Comparing Experimental and Control Groups: Researchers judge effects of the independent variable compared to outcomes.

More Components of an Experiment

  • Confounding Variables: Factors other than the independent variable that can affect results.
  • Selection Bias: Assignment to groups that are present at the beginning of an experiment; can be controlled by random assignment.
  • Placebo Effect: Response to a treatment caused by a person’s expectations, not the treatment itself.
  • Experimenter Bias: A researcher’s expectations influence the experiment’s results.
  • Double-Blind Technique: Used to control placebo effect and experimenter bias. Neither the experimenter nor participants know who is in which group.

APA Regulations

  • Researchers must ensure participants are representative of the population so results will be generalized.
  • Research must include detailed information about participant characteristics.
  • Legality: Must conform to federal, state, and local laws.
  • Institutional Approval: Must obtain approval from the institution.
  • Informed Consent: Participants must be informed of the purpose and potential harm.
  • Deception: Is ethical when it is necessary to acquire data.
  • Debriefing: Participants are informed about any deception after the study.
  • Damage: Ensure no damage to participants under another authority (employees, children, patients, etc.).
  • Payment: Participants can be paid, as long as they are informed about what is expected.

Example of Deception and Unethical Behavior

  • Ethical guidelines have not always existed.
  • In 1932, participants were recruited in an experiment studying syphilis in Black men.
  • Participants that tested positive were not informed that they had the disease.
  • Although no cure existed at the beginning of the study, a cure was found in 1947 (penicillin) but was not administered to participants.
  • Many participants unknowingly spread the disease, and many died.

Research with Animals

  • Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC):
    • A committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members that reviews proposals for research involving non-human animals.
  • 90% of psychological research involving animal subjects uses rodents or birds.
  • Animals make good substitutes because many of their basic processes are sufficiently similar to those in humans.
  • Animals are used when the research would be unethical in human participants.
  • Researchers must still aim to minimize pain or distress.

Bias to Be Aware Of

  • Whites Overpopulated: Subjects are often drawn from college populations, which are more white.
  • Failure to Include Socioeconomic Status: Consideration needed based upon access to various outlets.
  • Gender Bias: Tendency to specify gender when the sample is female, but less often when the sample is male.
  • Ageism: Found in psychological research with older adults regarding conclusions.