Advanced Biology Final Study Guide Notes

Ch. 24 Bacteria

  • Types of Archaebacteria
  • Types of Eubacteria: Classified based on shape and groupings.
  • Gram stain: A staining technique used to differentiate bacteria based on their cell wall structure.
  • Simple stain: A staining technique that uses a single dye to color bacteria for better visualization.
  • Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Known as the "Father of Microbiology" for his work in improving the microscope and observing microorganisms.
  • Robert Koch: Developed Koch's postulates, a set of criteria to establish a causative relationship between a microorganism and a disease.
  • Antibiotics: Substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.

Ch. 25 Viruses

  • DNA Viruses, RNA Viruses, and Retroviruses:
    • Viruses can have either DNA or RNA as their genetic material. Retroviruses, like HIV, use reverse transcriptase to convert their RNA into DNA for integration into the host cell's genome.
  • Make-up of Viruses:
    • Viruses consist of a nucleic acid genome (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses may also have an envelope derived from the host cell membrane.
  • Comparison Between Viruses and Bacteria:
    • Viruses are smaller and simpler than bacteria. Viruses require a host cell to replicate, while bacteria can reproduce independently.
  • Characteristics of Living and Nonliving:
    • Viruses exhibit some characteristics of living organisms (e.g., replication, mutation) but lack others (e.g., cellular structure, metabolism), so they are considered nonliving when outside a host cell.
  • Bacteriophage:
    • A virus that infects bacteria.
  • Lytic and Lysogenic Cycles:
    • Lytic Cycle: The virus replicates within the host cell and lyses (destroys) the cell to release new viruses.
    • Lysogenic Cycle: The viral DNA integrates into the host cell's chromosome (becoming a prophage), and is replicated along with the host cell's DNA without causing immediate cell lysis.
  • HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus, a retrovirus that causes AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
  • Vaccines: Preparations that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and provide immunity against a specific virus.
  • Future of Viral Research: Ongoing efforts to develop new antiviral drugs and vaccines to combat viral diseases.

Ch. 26/27 Protista

  • Plant-like Protists: Examples include algae, which are photosynthetic and can be unicellular or multicellular.
    • Grouped/classified based on their pigments, cell wall composition, and energy storage compounds.
    • Energy obtained through photosynthesis.
  • Animal-like Protists: Examples include protozoa, which are heterotrophic and can be classified based on their mode of movement.
    • Grouped/classified based on how they move (e.g., flagella, cilia, pseudopodia) and how they obtain energy (e.g., phagocytosis).

Ch. 30 Plant Classification

  • Classification of Plants (pg. 580): Review the chart on page 580 of the textbook.
  • Plant Collection: Review the plants collected, focusing on their classification and characteristics.
  • Types of Fungi: Review the types of fungi from the Plant/Fungi collection.
  • History of Land Plants:
    • Land plants evolved from aquatic algae. Key evolutionary events include the development of vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers.
  • Vascular/Nonvascular Plants:
    • Vascular plants have specialized tissues (xylem and phloem) for transporting water and nutrients.
    • Nonvascular plants (e.g., mosses) lack these tissues and rely on diffusion.
  • Seed/Seedless Plants:
    • Seed plants reproduce using seeds, which contain an embryo and food supply.
    • Seedless plants (e.g., ferns) reproduce using spores.
  • Monocots/Dicots:
    • Monocots: Have one cotyledon (seed leaf), parallel leaf venation, and flower parts in multiples of three.
    • Dicots: Have two cotyledons, net-like leaf venation, and flower parts in multiples of four or five.

Ch. 31 Plant Structure and Function

  • Roots:
    • Functions include anchoring the plant, absorbing water and nutrients, and storing food.
  • Stems:
    • Functions include supporting the plant, transporting water and nutrients, and sometimes storing food or carrying out photosynthesis.
  • Leaves:
    • Primary function is photosynthesis. Structure includes the epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular bundles (veins).

Ch. 37-40 Complex Invertebrates

  • Trochophore: A type of larva common to several phyla of invertebrates, such as mollusks and annelids.
  • Annelids: Segmented worms (e.g., earthworms, leeches).
    • Characteristics: Segmentation, a coelom (body cavity), and a closed circulatory system.
  • Mollusks: A diverse group of invertebrates (e.g., snails, clams, squids).
    • Characteristics: A mantle (which may secrete a shell), a muscular foot, and a visceral mass containing the organs.
  • Uses of Leeches in Medicine: Leeches secrete anticoagulants that can improve blood flow and prevent clotting.
  • Benefits of Earthworms to Soil: Earthworms aerate the soil, improve drainage, and recycle organic matter.
  • Classification within the Phylum Mollusca:
    • Classes include Gastropoda (snails), Bivalvia (clams), and Cephalopoda (squids).
  • Anatomy of Clam and Earthworm:
    • Clam: Includes the shell, mantle, gills, and foot.
    • Earthworm: Includes the segments, setae, clitellum, and digestive system.
  • Arthropods: The most diverse phylum of animals (e.g., insects, crustaceans, arachnids).
    • Characteristics: Exoskeleton made of chitin, segmented body, and jointed appendages.
  • Classification of Arthropods:
    • Classes include Insecta (insects), Crustacea (crustaceans), and Arachnida (arachnids).
  • Anatomy of Grasshopper and Crayfish:
    • Grasshopper: Includes the head, thorax, abdomen, legs, wings, and antennae.
    • Crayfish: Includes the cephalothorax, abdomen, legs, claws, and antennae.
  • Chitin: A polysaccharide that forms the exoskeleton of arthropods.
  • Trilobites: An extinct group of marine arthropods.
  • Insects: The most diverse group of arthropods.
    • Characteristics: Three body segments (head, thorax, abdomen), six legs, and often wings.
  • Pheromones: Chemical signals used by insects for communication.
  • Complete Metamorphosis:
    • Insect development with four distinct stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
  • Incomplete Metamorphosis:
    • Insect development with three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. Nymphs resemble small adults.

Ch. 41-45 Vertebrates

  • Seven Classes of Vertebrates:
    • Agnatha (jawless fish), Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), Osteichthyes (bony fish), Amphibia (amphibians), Reptilia (reptiles), Aves (birds), and Mammalia (mammals).
  • Characteristics of Vertebrates:
    • Notochord, vertebral column, cranium, and paired appendages.
  • Three Fish Classes and Examples:
    • Agnatha: Lampreys and hagfish.
    • Chondrichthyes: Sharks and rays.
    • Osteichthyes: Tuna and goldfish.
  • Fish Anatomy: Gills, fins, swim bladder, and lateral line system.
  • Frog Anatomy: Skin, lungs, heart, and digestive system.
  • Differences Between Fish, Amphibian, and Human Heart:
    • Fish: Two-chambered heart.
    • Amphibian: Three-chambered heart.
    • Human: Four-chambered heart.
  • Classification of Reptiles:
    • Orders include Squamata (lizards and snakes), Testudines (turtles), Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators).
  • Amniotic Egg: An egg with a shell and membranes that protect the developing embryo; allows reptiles, birds, and mammals to reproduce on land.
  • Characteristics/Reasons for Moving Onto Land:
    • Adaptations include lungs, limbs, and waterproof skin.
  • Characteristics of Birds:
    • Feathers, wings, hollow bones, and a beak.
  • Archaeopteryx: Transitional fossil between reptiles and birds.
  • Characteristics of Mammals:
    • Hair, mammary glands, and three middle ear bones.
  • Endothermy/Ectothermy:
    • Endothermy: Animals that generate their own body heat (e.g., birds and mammals).
    • Ectothermy: Animals that rely on external sources of heat (e.g., reptiles and amphibians).

Ch. 46-50 Human Biology

  • All Bones: Review all bones in the human skeleton.
  • Five Functions of Bone: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.
  • Red and Yellow Bone Marrow:
    • Red bone marrow produces blood cells.
    • Yellow bone marrow stores fat.
  • Minerals Involved with Bone Strength: Calcium and phosphorus.
  • All Muscles: Review all muscles in the human body.
  • Components of a Sarcomere:
    • Actin, myosin, Z-lines, and I-bands.
  • Four Types of Tissue: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.
  • Four Body Cavities and Organs in Each:
    • Cranial cavity: Brain.
    • Thoracic cavity: Heart and lungs.
    • Abdominal cavity: Stomach, intestines, liver, and kidneys.
    • Pelvic cavity: Bladder and reproductive organs.
  • Three Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
  • Connective Tissue:
    • Components: Cells (e.g., fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteocytes) and extracellular matrix (fibers and ground substance).
    • Liquid matrix: Blood
    • Solid matrix: Bone
    • Semi-solid matrix: Cartilage
  • Circulatory System:
    • Pulmonary Circulation: Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, and oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
    • Chambers: Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle.
    • Valves: Tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral (bicuspid), and aortic.
    • Arteries/Veins: Pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein.
  • Blood Components and Blood Types:
    • Components: Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
    • Blood Types: A, B, AB, and O.
  • William Harvey: Discovered the circulation of blood.
  • Respiratory System:
    • Structures: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
  • Concentration Gradient:
    • Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs and tissues based on differences in partial pressures.
  • Mechanisms of Breathing:
    • Inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation) involve changes in the volume and pressure of the thoracic cavity.
  • Koch's Postulates: A set of criteria to establish a causative relationship between a microorganism and a disease.
  • Nonspecific and Specific Defenses:
    • Nonspecific defenses: Skin, mucous membranes, inflammation, and fever.
    • Specific defenses: Antibodies, T cells, and B cells.
    • White Blood Cells: Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
    • Inflammatory Response: Redness, swelling, heat, and pain caused by increased blood flow and immune cell activity.
    • Role of Histamine: Vasodilation and increased permeability of blood vessels during inflammation.
  • Vaccines: Preparations that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and provide immunity against a specific disease.
  • Autoimmune Diseases: Diseases in which the immune system attacks the body's own tissues.
  • Allergies: Hypersensitive immune responses to harmless substances (allergens).

Chapters 49 & 50 Digestive and Nervous Systems

  • 23 out of the 100 exam questions are from these 2 chapters. Spend some time here. No questions will be about the excretory system or sense organs, but everything else should be reviewed.
  • Study more for Biology, because biology is life.