patho exam 2
Mechanisms of Infectious Disease
Terminology: colonization, infection, pathogen, virulence, incubation, Acute, chronic etc.
Courses/stages of infectious disease (e.g. incubation; prodrome….etc.)
For Microorganisms in lecture:
Bacteria: how replicate and survive the immune system
Virus: steps of virus invasion, impact of virus replication on host cell; How do viruses evade our immune system (i.e. what happens to the influenza virus each year)?
Inflammation and Immunity
What are the mechanical/chemical barriers known as the ‘first’ line of defense? (what type of immunity is it?)
Inflammation process
How does it start? Be able to describe the whole process of inflammation
(what elements do what including mast cells and substances they release; phagocytes, and plasma protein systems)
Mast cell release/synthesize what substances?
what do these substances do? How are mast cells activated?
Actions of white blood cells in inflammation –
What are the names of the cells, what do they do?
How do phagocytes (name some)recognize foreign cells/microorganisms?
What is active acquired immunity?
There are different kinds of antibodies; when do they appear (i.e. when during the infection) or where in the body are they found? What do antibodies do to help destroy an invader?
What is cell mediated immunity? What cell plays an important role?
Differentiate between the humoral vs the cellular response
How is the organism ultimately destroyed by the immune response.
Differentiate between how the humoral and cellular systems destroy invaders
How does your body know what’s you and what is a foreign invader?
i.e. what is MHC-I;
what happens with MHC-I when cells are infected?
What is an antigen presenting cell? What is the role of APCs?
How do APCs present antigens and to what cells? What class MHC do they have?
What are helper T cells? How do they communicate with other T-cells?
Types of lymphocytes and what they do
What is an antibody - antigen combination called?
What can be stimulated by these combinations?
Immune Disorders
What is congenital immunodeficiency?
Hypersensitivity - what is it?
What are the different types of hypersensitivity reactions? (I recommend making a one page table that allows you to compare/contrast the 4 types)
What cells or substances are involved in each one
know examples of Types 1-4 and be able to explain them
know what the symptoms of hypersensitivity are depending on the type of hypersensitivity and the cells involved
What is a severe Type 1 reaction called? (what will the patient look like with this severe reaction)
What is an immunodeficiency disorder? What are some types? What are the consequences (i.e. clinical indicators of immune deficiency)? What happens if the T helper cell is affected?
Autoimmune Disorders: contributing factors/how they develop?
Hematology
Disorders of RBCs
Characteristics of RBCs
Meanings of lab values on complete blood count (including hematocrit & hemoglobin),
and the erythrocyte indices (MCV, MCH, MCHC)
What is the definition of anemia – what would you see on a CBC, what would you see in the person (what are symptoms of anemia and why do they occur)
Know the different types/categories of anemia such as microcytic, hypochromic or macrocytic, normochromic etc.
What kinds of anemia that would be found under each category and what labs and symptoms would help identify each.
Be sure to include: iron deficiency anemia, pernicious anemia, vitamin B12
deficiency, folic acid deficiency, hemolytic anemia, anemia d/t chronic disease, and anemia d/t blood loss
For each of the anemias above be able to identify common causes and
distinguishing symptoms if any.
***I recommend making a one page table of the different categories of anemia so you can compare/contrast them as you study. (Main categories: microcytic/hypochromic; macrocytic/normochromic; normocytic/normochromic, hemolytic, etc). Include which types fall into which category, causes of each, signs/symptoms, and labs.
What is sickle cell anemia? causes? Signs/symptoms? What are contributing factors that makes cells ‘sickle’; What ‘crises’ or problems can occur?
Additional terms: jaundice, pancytopenia, erythropoiesis
Disorders of WBCs
Definitions of terms related to white blood cells (leukopenia, leukocytosis, neutropenia;
bands and segs, etc.) – when do these problems occur?
Clotting/Bleeding Disorders
Define coagulopathy? What do you need for normal clotting?
Know the phases/steps of hemostasis
Hypercoagulability: causes and consequences
Causes and consequences of increased platelet aggregation
Risk Factors for increased clot formation/thromboembolic disease
Causes of Abnormal Bleeding
What is thrombocytopenia: causes and symptoms
Describe DIC. What is it? Common causes/risk factors; What s/s would patient have?
What is Heparin Induced Thrombocytopenia? What causes increased aggregation and destruction of platelets?
Causes of decreased number or function of clotting factors and platelets
Cancer
Want does cancer in situ mean?
List characteristics of malignant cells.
How do malignant tumors differ from benign tumors?
What is metastasis?
How do “mets” commonly travel to distant locations?
How can cancer cells replicate indefinitely and become “immortal”?
What does it mean for proto-oncogene to become an oncogene?
Why is more than one mutation or genetic “hit” necessary for cancer cells to develop?
What causes cachexia in cancer patients?
How is cancer diagnosed (not simply screened)?
Once it is diagnosed, how is it graded and staged?
Neuro:
Parkinson’s Disease: cause; what part of brain affected? What neurotransmitter is decreased? Signs/symptoms; how diagnosed?
Multiple Sclerosis: cause; what part of nerves is damaged?
Signs/symptoms; classification of MS (pattern of symptoms)?
diagnosis
Myasthenia Gravis: what is pathology/problem? Cause; signs/symptoms, diagnosis
ALS: what is the pathology; signs/symptoms; outcomes
Guillian Barre: cause/pathology; common triggers; signs/symptoms, diagnosis, outcomes
Spinal Cord Injury:
spinal shock: pathophys and signs/symptoms
neurogenic shock: pathophys and signs/symptoms
in general what function is lost with different levels of injury (e.g. C3; T1/2; S1/S5)
classification of SCI (complete, incomplete, paraplegia, quadriplegia)
autonomic dysreflexia: what level of injury can this occur in?
cause/pathophys (i.e. what is going wrong with SNS); signs/symptoms
how treat?
Diagnosis and goals of treatment
Increased Intracranial Pressure (AKA increased ICP or IC-HTN)
Causes (may need to look at slides of other disorders/injuries to make this list)
What does the Monroe-Kelli Doctrine describe?
What happens if compensatory mechanisms fail?
Signs/symptoms of increased ICP? Which is an early warning sign?
What is the ‘really bad’ thing that can happen to the brain, if ICP uncontrolled?
What is Cushing’s Triad? What does it tell you?
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
What does a focal injury mean? Give some examples.
Diffuse axonal injury (what is it and what happens to neurons?) Give some examples.
What is the cause of secondary injury? What neurotransmitter plays a role?
What electrolyte plays a role?
Cerebrovascular Disease and Stroke
Risk factors
Three types of stroke and specific risk factors associated with each
TIA definition
Pathophysiology of ischemic stroke
Pathophysiology of hemorrhagic stroke
Signs/symptoms of stroke
How is stroke diagnosed?
Emergent therapy in ischemic stroke
Hydrocephalus
Define it
What does noncommunicating mean?
causes
Signs/symptoms adults; additional s/s infants
Brain Tumors
Pathophysiology (i.e. how do symptoms develop and how is tissue around tumor affected)
Signs/symptoms
Meningitis
Causes
Pathophysiology
Signs/symptoms
Diagnosis
Seizures
Definition provoked seizure
Definition epilepsy
Causes of seizure disorders – epilepsy vs. provoked
Types of seizures/Seizure Classifications (partial versus generalized)
Types of generalized seizures
Pathophysiology of seizures
Status Epilepticus: what is it? How treated? What is the danger?
Differentiate delirium and dementia
s/s dementia
Alzheimer’s
Risk factors
What structural changes occur in the brain (i.e. what are neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles; what happens to the cortex and ventricles)
Signs/symptoms with initial, progressive/moderate, and end stage
Diagnosis
Aneurysms and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage (SAH)
What is an aneurysm
What happens if it ruptures
Signs/symptoms of SAH