The Rise of Sectionalism

The Old South

Enslavement in the South became closely associated with race.
Immigrants continued to move to the South but faced challenges in finding economic opportunities as much of the economy relied on slavery.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin

Harriet Beecher Stowe published "Uncle Tom’s Cabin" in 1852.
The book exposed the horrors of slavery to readers in the northern states.
Individuals without a prior opinion on slavery began to oppose the institution after reading the book.
"Uncle Tom’s Cabin" played a significant role in fueling the abolitionist movement.
The book was banned in some southern states due to its anti-slavery sentiments.

Regions of the South

The South prior to the Civil War included several regions:
- Lower South: Comprising South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, and Louisiana. Known for an extensive plantation system using slave labor to grow cotton.
- Middle South: Included Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia (note: West Virginia formed during the Civil War). This region diversified its crops beyond cotton.
- Upper South: Comprised Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky, and Delaware, where slavery was on the decline, though cash crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, rice, and indigo remained significant.
- Border South: Included Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri.
- Middle South (or Upper South): Included Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas.
- Deep South: Included South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Texas, and Louisiana.

King Cotton

In the early 19th century, cotton emerged as the most profitable cash crop in the South.
Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in the 1790s, which streamlined the process of removing seeds from cotton.
The cotton gin reduced the number of enslaved African Americans necessary for cotton cultivation, paradoxically increasing overall profits and demand for slavery.
The textile industry in Great Britain drove the demand for American-grown cotton, raising its price.
By the time of the Civil War, Britain began transitioning to sourcing cotton from India and Egypt, which risked a cotton bust irrespective of the Civil War.

Southern Concerns

Soil exhaustion became a significant issue for many southern planters.
There was a reliance on northern manufacturing and shipping for southern products, raising concerns among southerners.
Some southerners sought to boost manufacturing in the South.
Plantation owners expressed worries regarding the growing abolitionist movement in the North.
Increased federal interference in what southerners viewed as state matters was a common concern.

The Plantation System

Planters: Defined as southerners owning at least 20 enslaved African Americans. Before the Civil War, they constituted only 4% of Southern society.
Known as the southern elite, planters wielded the most political power.
Plantation Mistresses: Women who often managed households and enslaved African Americans.
Overseers: White men employed by planters to supervise enslaved individuals.
Drivers: Enslaved men assigned to oversee groups of other enslaved people.

The Small Farmers and Laborers

Many small farmers owned 5-6 enslaved African Americans, comprising the majority of enslaved holders in the South.
They were typically viewed as middle class.
Smaller farms often did not rely on enslaved labor and used familial labor, including women and children.
Poor whites constituted about 40% of the white southern population, frequently renting land or working as low-wage laborers.

Freemen

Enslaved African Americans made up a significant portion of southern society.
Instances of free blacks existed, either never enslaved or having purchased their freedom.
In 1860, only 10% of the African population in the South were freemen.

Enslaved African Americans in the South

Slavery became racially defined and determined by maternal descent (if the mother was enslaved, so was the child).
Enslaved women were primarily used for breeding more enslaved individuals, suffering exploitation, including sexual abuse.
Southern states did not recognize marriages among enslaved individuals, leading to permanent family separations due to sales.
Children began working at as young as five years old.
Many enslaved African Americans adopted Christianity, motivated by the hope of a better existence.

The Slavery System

Each southern state established codes to control enslaved behavior, aimed at preventing rebellions and runaways.
The International Slave Trade was made illegal in 1808, but domestic slave trade continued as enslaved women bore enslaved children.
Virginia, Maryland, and North Carolina became known for breeding enslaved people for profit.
Enslaved individuals faced exploitation, violence, and punishment—working in households or fields.
House enslaved individuals, often skilled, generally received better treatment than field workers.
Urban enslaved African Americans had more interactions with their owners and access to goods and privileges.

Enslaved African American Resistance Movements

Open rebellions were rare, but enslaved individuals frequently broke tools or slowed production as forms of resistance.
Rebellions, when they occurred, faced violent suppression, with leaders typically executed.
Slave codes often restricted activities that might lead to uprisings.

The Prosser Conspiracy

Gabriel Prosser organized a slave revolt near Richmond, Virginia.
Before the conspiracy could be carried out, authorities were alerted. Prosser and 26 followers were subsequently hanged.

Revolt in Louisiana

Charles Deslondes coordinated the largest enslaved revolt in U.S. history in 1811.
The revolt initially succeeded, involving over 200 members.
However, it was ultimately suppressed by local militias and the U.S. Army, resulting in Deslondes and 100 others being executed, often gruesomely as a deterrent against future revolts.

Denmark Vesey

Denmark Vesey, formerly enslaved and now a free black carpenter, planned a rebellion aimed at reaching Haiti.
His conspiracy was uncovered, leading to trials and executions of him and 135 followers.
Harsh restrictions were implemented against gatherings of enslaved people and movements of free blacks to thwart future revolts.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion

Occurred in Virginia in 1831, resulting in the deaths of 57 whites, predominantly women and children.
Turner's rebellion involved marches towards Spanish Florida, aimed at seeking refuge.
The rebellion saw 200 African Americans killed, regardless of their involvement.
Nat Turner and 20 leaders were executed; Virginia subsequently enacted laws banning enslaved people from literacy.
Armed patrols began to track down runaway enslaved people following these events.

Runaway Enslaved African Americans

Runaway enslaved individuals were more common than outright rebellion.
An estimated 50,000 enslaved people escaped annually to seek freedom in the North.
Federal bounties motivated groups to pursue and return runaways.

Slavery in the Territories

The acquisition of land from the Mexican Cession sparked renewed debates over slavery's extension into new territories.
The Missouri Compromise addressed only land acquired from the Louisiana Purchase.
The Wilmot Proviso aimed to prohibit slavery in territories from the Mexican-American War but failed to pass.
Some proposed that settlers in new territories should vote on the slavery issue through popular sovereignty, a concept that Congress later adopted.

Those Against Abolition

Northern abolitionists represented a minority.
Critics argued abolition threatened the existing social order and would disrupt economies reliant on cash crops like cotton and tobacco.
Fears included chaos, bloodshed, anarchy, and racial intermingling, backed by Biblical references to slavery.
Some pointed out that black enslavers existed, complicating narratives on slavery.

The Free Soil Party

The Free Soil Party consisted of northern Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and members of the Liberty Party.
Party goals included preventing slavery in new territories to protect labor competition for poor whites and small farmers.
They advocated for land grants to encourage homesteading.
The platform helped lay the groundwork for the Republican Party’s formation.

The California Gold Rush

Gold was discovered in California in 1848 at Sutter Mill.
A significant migration to California ensued, with few achieving substantial wealth.
Boom towns quickly developed and dissipated as mineral resources dwindled.
The influx included diverse backgrounds; notably, 20,000 Chinese miners faced taxation that forced many out.
Mining life was often violent and disease-ridden; about 1 in 5 prospectors died within six months.
Environmental consequences included sediment runoff in rivers due to mining practices.

California Seeks Admittance

California sought admission into the Union as a state while New Mexico had already entered as a free state.
Debates over slavery intensified amidst these developments.

Clay’s Compromise

Henry Clay, responding to sectional tensions, sought relaxation of conflict through a compromise.
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a precursor.
Proposed measures included:
- California’s admission as a free state.
- Territories of New Mexico and Utah established without slavery.
- Texas's claims in New Mexico voided with federal compensation.
- Slavery continued in Washington D.C., but slave trading was prohibited there.
- Enactment of a Fugitive Slave Act and non-interference with interstate slave trade by Congress.

Compromise of 1850

Senator Stephen A. Douglas extracted parts of Clay's proposal for individual votes in Congress.
John C. Calhoun’s death eased pressure on Southern senators against the measures.
Parts of Clay’s proposal became law:
- California admitted as a free state.
- Texas ceded territory in New Mexico for compensation.
- Utah determined slavery status by popular sovereignty.
- Fugitive Slave Act enforced to return runaways.
- Abolition of slave trade in Washington D.C. but not slavery itself.
The Compromise allowed the new territories acquired from the Mexican-American War to use popular sovereignty regarding slavery.

The Fugitive Slave Act

A core aspect of the Compromise of 1850, significantly controversial.
Required the return of runaway enslaved African Americans to their southern owners.
Faced moral condemnation by abolitionists.
President Fillmore used federal troops to enforce the act.
Abolitionists reported an increase in activism in response to the law.

Fugitive Slave Act (1850)

Reinforced rights to capture and return enslaved persons seeking freedom.
Many living in free territories feared re-enslavement and sought refuge in Canada.
Heightened polarization between North and South.

The Presidential Election of 1852

The Democrats nominated Franklin Pierce, and the Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott.
Both candidates had fought in the Mexican-American War.
Pierce endorsed the Compromise of 1850, supporting westward expansion even with potential new slave states.
Attempting to appease both sides, he ultimately alienated both factions.
Sectional divisions continued to escalate, especially in the deep South relying heavily on enslavement.
Pierce won the election.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act

Authored by Stephen A. Douglas, the act overturned the Missouri Compromise of 1820.
Proposed that voters in Kansas and Nebraska would decide on slavery through popular sovereignty, even above the Missouri Compromise line.
Deepened sectional divisions in the country.

The Republican Party

The growing conflict between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions led to the decline of the Whig Party and the emergence of the Republican Party in the 1850s.
The Republican Party developed as a third party, evolving into one of America's major political parties.
Most Republicans before the Civil War were from the North, with a frequently changing platform.

BLEEDING KANSAS

Northern Reaction: By 1855, around 1,200 Northeasterners migrated to Kansas. Half of the ballots for Kansas elections were cast by registered voters.
Pro-slavery factions won governing elections, leading to laws known as "Bogus Laws" that penalized anti-slavery sentiment.
Outrage in the North led to the establishment of a Free State legislature in Topeka, resulting in dual governing bodies.
- President Pierce only recognized the pro-slavery legislature.
- Violence broke out between abolitionists and pro-slavery supporters.

Bleeding Kansas

Kansas endured severe violence as abolitionists and pro-enslavement supporters flooded in, with rising conflict.
Fraudulent voting resulted, and John Brown's Pottawatomie Massacre escalated the war in Kansas.
The Senate was also affected, as Senator Charles Sumner delivered a speech, "The Crime against Kansas," condemning pro-slavery actions, leading to his brutal assault by Congressman Preston Brooks.

BUCHANAN ELECTED 1856

Democrats nominated James Buchanan, who was involved with the Ostend Manifesto and not connected to the Kansas Issue.
Republicans nominated John C. Frémont, an abolitionist calling for repeal of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and blaming Democrats for "Bleeding Kansas."
The Know-Nothing Party nominated former president Millard Fillmore.

The Presidential Election of 1856

The Democrats nominated James Buchanan; Republicans nominated John C. Frémont; the Know-Nothing Party nominated Millard Fillmore.
This was the first presidential election for the Republican Party.
Increasing sectional divisions marked the backdrop of the election.
Buchanan emerged victorious.

SUMNER BROOKS AFFAIR (May 1856)

Senator Charles Sumner's speech "The Crime Against Kansas" targeted slavery in America, specifically criticizing Senator Andrew Butler.
Confronted by Butler’s nephew, Congressman Preston Brooks, Sumner was attacked within the Senate chamber with a walking stick, highlighting the intense passion around the slavery debate.

Dred Scott v. Sandford

A landmark Supreme Court case involving an enslaved man, Dred Scott, who lived in free territories before returning to the South.
Scott sued, claiming his status as a free man due to his residence in a free state.
The Supreme Court ruled that enslaved individuals did not possess rights, citing that the framers of the Constitution never intended for them to be considered citizens; most justices at the time owned enslaved people.
The case would later be overturned by the 14th Amendment.

Dred Scott Case

Dred Scott, enslaved by a Missouri army surgeon, traveled with his enslaver to Illinois and Wisconsin territories.
He sued the widow of his enslaver for freedom based on his residence in free areas.
Chief Justice Roger Taney ruled against Scott, arguing he could not sue due to being a non-citizen.
The case asserted Congress lacked the authority to regulate slavery in territories, angering many Republicans.

The Lecompton Constitution

A pro-slavery constitution proposed for Kansas amid dual legislative sessions—one pro-slavery and one anti-slavery.
The anti-slavery legislature nullified the Lecompton Constitution when the pro-slavery side failed to participate in a vote because of protests.

Abraham Lincoln

A lawyer from Illinois, member of the Republican Party, opposed slavery's extension into territories.
During the 1858 Congressional election, he gained national attention through his debates with Stephen A. Douglas, where he framed slavery as a moral issue and underscored the inequality it represented.

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates

The Lincoln-Douglas debates in 1858 involved Abraham Lincoln challenging Stephen A. Douglas for the Illinois Senate seat.
Despite Lincoln's loss in the election, he gained national recognition.

Speech by Lincoln (1858)

Lincoln expressed opposition to social and political equality between white and black races, claiming inherent superiority of the white race, which has fueled controversy and criticism about his views on race throughout his career.

The State of Slavery in 1860

By 1860, there were 15 enslaved states and 18 free states.
Pro-slavery advocates felt marginalized in national politics.
Some factions believed that the resolution of slavery could only come through violent measures.
Enslavement persisted in the South and extended to western territories, escalating sectional tensions.

John Brown

Aimed to instigate a slave uprising by seizing the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, on October 16, 1859.
Brown and his group captured local citizens and took over the arsenal. The Virginia Militia, led by Robert E. Lee, quelled the situation, and Brown was captured, with many of his men killed or captured.

Harpers Ferry

John Brown’s raid aimed to arm enslaved African Americans for rebellion.
After capture, he was tried and executed for treason. His actions were celebrated by abolitionists, but labeled as terrorism by many Southerners, further deepening sectional tensions.

The Presidential Election of 1860

Democrats faced division, nominating Stephen A. Douglas and John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrats).
The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln; the Constitutional Union Party nominated John Bell as a compromise candidate.
Lincoln's victory came with a divided Democratic vote; he received about 40% of the popular vote and a decisive electoral college win.

Reaction to Lincoln’s Election

Many southerners felt compelled to secede from the Union.
Lincoln favored preventing the expansion of slavery but was not initially committed to abolishing it altogether; this stance evolved during the Civil War.
The secession convention in South Carolina ensued, leading to the formation of the Confederate States of America by several southern states in 1861.

The Eve of Civil War

President Buchanan failed to address the escalating tensions from Lincoln’s election in 1860.
He did not respond to aggressive actions against supply ships bound for Fort Sumter.
Following Lincoln's inauguration, tensions continued to rise with Lincoln asserting that preserving the Union took precedence over sectional disagreements.

Fort Sumter

After secession, South Carolina claimed Fort Sumter, initially attempting a peaceful transition.
On April 12, 1861, Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter during a resupply attempt by federal troops, resulting in a swift surrender. This assault is regarded as the catalyst for the Civil War.