Notes for Period 1 & 2: Contextualization, Exploration, Colonization, and Early Colonial Society
1. Native Peoples and Regions (Period 1 context)
Major Native language families and groups listed in the transcript:
Eskimo-Aleut
Na-Dene
Algic
Tsimshianic
Wakashan
Salishan
Chimakuan
Chinookan
Plateau Penutian
Kalapuyan
Alsean
Coosan
Shastan
Palaihnihan
Wintuan
Yuki-Wappo
Pomoan
Maiduan
Utian
Chumashan
Uto-Aztecan
Yokutsan
Yuman-Cochimi
Keresan
Kiowa-Tanoan
Caddoan
Siouan-Catawban
Comecrudan
Muskogean
Iroquoian
isolates
unclassified
uninhabited, unknown, out of area
Native groups enumerated (Period 1, 1491-1607):
1 Beothuk
2 Yuchi
3 Timucua
4 Calusa
5 Tunica
6 Natchez
7 Chitimacha
8 Adai
9 Atakapa
10 Karankawa
11 Tonkawa
12 Aranama
13 Cotoname
14 Coahuilteco
15 Solano
16 Zuni
17 Seri
18 Salinan
19 Esselen
20 Washo
21 Yana
22 Chimariko
23 Karuk
24 Takelma
25 Siuslaw
26 Cayuse
27 Kutenai
28 Haida
Geographic and environmental context: Native populations adapted to diverse geographies and climates, leading to varied cultures and technologies.
The transition to Period 1 includes the date range 1491-1607 (approach of sustained contact with Europeans and the beginning of lasting colonial dynamics).
1. Contextualization Period 1
Timeframe and turning points:
The voyage of Columbus in 1492 marks a global turning point in world history.
The first permanent settlement in the New World at Jamestown occurs in 1607.
Cultural diversity of the Americas:
Native cultures varied by geography and climate, creating unique societies.
Contrary to some European narratives, Native populations were highly complex with sophisticated social, political, and economic systems.
Native adaptations to environment:
Irrigation, forest management (e.g., forest burning), cave living, and other adaptation strategies to sustain communities.
European motives for exploration (the “Three GGGs” + water route to Asia):
God, Gold, Glory
Economic aims included fur posts, gold & silver mines, plantations; pursuit of water routes to Asia facilitated long-distance trade.
Transatlantic Exchange (Columbian Exchange):
Exchange of animals, plants, and germs between the Old World and the Americas.
New crops from the Americas (e.g., potatoes, corn, tomatoes) transformed European diets and supported population growth.
Germs devastated many Indigenous populations; estimates suggest a dramatic native population decline in the first century or so after contact (e.g., on the order of 90\% decline in some areas within about 100 years).
Addition of enslaved Africans:
Enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas by Europeans seeking low-cost labor for mines, plantations, and other enterprises.
Resistance existed as enslaved people maintained elements of home cultures.
European colonial patterns within a century of Columbus’ voyage:
Spanish and Portuguese began establishing colonies; labor often relied on Indigenous work networks.
Agriculture and precious metal mining (e.g., silver in Mexico and South America) supported Spain’s wealth in the 16th century.
Spain’s wealth contributed to its status as a major European power; other nations pursued opportunities in the Americas as well.
1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact
Purpose: Explain how and why various Native populations interacted with and adapted to the North American environment prior to European contact.
Core ideas:
Pre-contact Native societies practiced diverse political, economic, and social structures shaped by geography and resources.
Religion and cosmology were varied, with animistic beliefs common in many groups.
Population patterns, settlement types (permanent towns, trade networks, nomadic groups), and resource management varied widely.
1.3 European Exploration in the Americas
Causes of exploration and conquest:
Stabilization in Europe (climate changes, agricultural improvements, population growth) increased demand for new markets and resources.
The Renaissance fostered curiosity and scientific advancement; advancements in navigation and technology supported long-distance travel.
Motivations framed as God, Gold, Glory; religious conflicts in Europe spurred overseas expansion.
Technological and geopolitical facilitators:
Caravel, compass, astrolabe, printing press, gunpowder, and other technologies aided exploration.
The Iberian Power (Spain and Portugal) led early claims, followed by French, Dutch, and English ventures.
Economic and religious backdrops:
Stabilization in Europe, population growth, and desire for luxury goods pushed exploration.
The Protestant Reformation and Catholic-Spanish conflicts shaped the religious backdrop of exploration.
Notable outcomes:
Initial Spanish and Portuguese settlements expanded slowly; conflict with Indigenous peoples was common.
Competing European powers sought to establish influence and wealth in the Americas.
1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest
Columbian Exchange:
Disease and “Great Dying”: smallpox and measles devastated Indigenous populations.
Food and crops: maize, potatoes, manioc introduced to the Old World; wheat, grapes, olives introduced to the Americas.
Animals: horses (transformative for Plains peoples); sheep, pigs, cattle introduced by Europeans.
Minerals: silver and gold flowed from the Americas to Europe.
Renaissance technologies and global navigation tools continued to spread European influence.
Spanish exploration and conquest details:
Treaty of Tordesillas (dividing new world claims between Spain and Portugal): important impact on language and borders in the Americas; most of Latin America became Spanish-speaking, Brazil mainly Portuguese-speaking; Indigenous populations were largely ignored in the line’s demarcation.
Key terms and examples:
Encomienda system: system of labor assignation where Spanish conquerors controlled Indigenous labor in exchange for protection and religious instruction; largely led to harsh conditions and high Indigenous mortality.
Bartolomé de Las Casas issued critiques (e.g., A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies) highlighting abuses; Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda debated just causes of war against Indians.
1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System
Spanish labor and social structures:
Encomienda system and mining of silver; sugar plantations in certain regions.
Catholic conversion efforts and forced assimilation were common elements of colonial rule.
Social hierarchy and caste:
Rise of mixed populations: Mestizos (European + Indigenous), Mulatto (European + African).
Caste system developed based on racial and ethnic mixing.
Legal and religious justifications:
Spanish Requirement of 1513 framed the colonization as mandated by divine authority and justified coercion; used violence when necessary.
Ethical and political implications:
Intense debates about just causes of war and treatment of Indigenous peoples.
1.6 Cultural Interactions in the Americas
Pueblo Revolt (Pope’s Revolt), 1680 in New Mexico:
Indigenous revolt against Catholic institutions; Spanish temporarily expelled from the region.
Mercantilism and European colonial policy:
Colonies exist to enrich the mother country; mercantilist ties shaped colonial economies.
Protestant Reformation and transatlantic dynamics:
Spain remained Catholic; England became Protestant; tensions influenced colonization patterns and piracy/competition.
English aims and conflicts:
England’s shift toward colonization as a response to religious and political factors; enclosure policies and primogeniture pushed migration.
2. Contextualizing Period 2 (Early Settlements)
Overview:
Spanish and Portuguese were early settlers in Central and South America; Europeans later moved into North America.
French, Dutch, and British established Atlantic Coast colonies and migrated westward.
Jamestown (1607) and Plymouth (1620) were early successful British colonies along the Atlantic coast.
Each colony developed uniquely due to its environment and settler culture.
Staple crops (tobacco, rice, timber) became important in transatlantic trade.
Colonial growth and labor:
Initially tied to Great Britain through religion and language; trade disputes spurred a growing colonial identity.
Native-European competition for resources led to recurring conflict.
Labor sources included Indigenous labor, indentured servants (often 7-year terms), and later African slavery as a more durable labor system emerged.
2.2 Spanish Claims and Colonial Efforts
Florida (established 1513 by Juan Ponce de León; permanent settlement at St. Augustine in 1565):
Early settlements faced strong Indigenous resistance; limited mineral wealth; population and native demographics declined due to disease and conflict.
California (missions beginning around 1784 under Franciscan Father Junípero Serra):
Mission system aimed at converting Indigenous peoples and consolidating Spanish presence along the Pacific coast.
2.2 French Claims
French colonization focused on missionaries and fur traders in the 16th–17th centuries; settlements were relatively small and often male-dominated.
Key sites and figures:
Quebec, founded by Samuel de Champlain in 1608; Champlain called the “Father of New France.”
Mississippi River exploration by Jolliet and Marquette (1673); La Salle explored and claimed lower Mississippi and established Louisiana (1682); New Orleans founded in 1718.
2.2 Dutch Claims
Dutch exploration under Henry Hudson (1609) led to claims around the Hudson River and New Amsterdam (later New York).
The Dutch West India Company controlled the region; trade (especially fur) was central; strong but relatively small settler populations; stronger native-trade relationships and less intermarriage compared to some other colonies.
2.2 British Claims
Early claims by John Cabot (1497) established English claims in North America.
1600s colonization involved migrants seeking opportunity and religious freedom; population growth outpaced economic growth, prompting expansion and conflict with Indigenous peoples.
Increasing diversity among settlers over time (families and single women).
2.3 Colonial Regions
Types of colonies:
Joint Stock
Royal
Proprietorship
Regions and characteristics:
Chesapeake Colonies (e.g., Virginia and Maryland): cash crops, reliance on indentured servants early on; later slave labor increased.
New England Colonies (e.g., Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay): religious motives, mixed economy, strong town governance.
Middle Colonies (e.g., New York, Pennsylvania): breadbasket economies, religious tolerance in some cases; diverse populations.
Southern Colonies & West Indies: plantation economies focused on rice, sugar, tobacco; slave labor system grew; example colonies included Carolinas, Georgia, and sugar-oriented plantations in the West Indies.
Notable early settlements:
Roanoke (the “Lost Colony”)
Jamestown (1607) with Starving Times; leadership by John Smith; tobacco cultivation under John Rolfe; Headright system offering land to settlers.
Plymouth (1620) and the Mayflower Compact; move toward self-government and direct democracy in early New England.
Massachusetts Bay Colony under John Winthrop; Great Migration; town meetings; church membership requirements; mixed economy.
2.4 Transatlantic Trade
Triangle Trade defined: exchange between West Africa, Europe, and the Americas.
Middle Passage: voyage for enslaved Africans to the Americas; high mortality rate (estimates around 20\%).
Mercantilism:
Role of mother country: export more than you import; colonies exist to enrich the mother country; colonies supply raw materials and serve as markets for manufactured goods.
Colonial governance and neglect:
Salutary Neglect led to some colonial self-rule.
Navigation Acts forced English ships in colonial trade and restricted trade with non-English ports.
Dominion of New England (led by Sir Edmund Andros) centralized royal authority, dissolved local self-government, and ended town meetings; effects persisted until the Glorious Revolution.
2.5 Interactions Between Native Americans and Europeans
Tensions and conflicts:
Anglo-Powhatan Wars (early 17th century) arose as settlers pushed westward; alliances and intermarriage influenced outcomes (e.g., John Rolfe and Pocahontas).
Pequot War (1630) and Massasoit alliances shaped regional power dynamics; New England Confederation formed as a defensive alliance.
King Philip’s War (Metacom’s War, 1675–1678) represented a major Native resistance that was ultimately crushed, marking a turning point in New England Native-European relations.
Bacon’s Rebellion (led by Nathaniel Bacon):
Causes included land scarcity, elite political power, and colonial protection; its suppression contributed to shifts away from indentured servitude toward African slave labor.
2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies
Transition from indentured servitude to race-based slavery:
Decline in indentured servitude after Bacon’s Rebellion and rising demand for labor contributed to a growth in enslaved populations.
Slavery existed in all 13 colonies, with higher concentrations in the Southern Colonies.
Slavery and social codes:
Chattel slavery; codified slave laws; development of a racialized caste system.
Forms of resistance:
Work slowdowns, family formation, cultural continuity, escape attempts, and rebellions (e.g., Stono Rebellion in 1739 in South Carolina) illustrate ongoing resistance.
2.7 Colonial Society & Culture
Population growth and diversity:
Population expansion driven by immigration from various European regions (Germans, Scotch-Irish, etc.), enslaved Africans, and new colonial settlements.
Enslaved Africans constituted a significant portion of the population in many colonies (e.g., 20\% overall).
Religion and governance:
Religious toleration varied by colony; Rhode Island and Pennsylvania offered more religious freedom; Massachusetts enforced stricter church membership rules.
The press emerged as a tool for political discourse (e.g., Zenger case in colonial New York).
Religion in daily life and reform movements:
Great Awakening (George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards) emphasized individual relationships with God and questioned church authority.
The Enlightenment emphasized reason, natural rights (John Locke), separation of powers (Montesquieu), and social contracts (Rousseau), shaping political thought.
Salutary Neglect and self-government:
Local governance flourished via town meetings (New England) and the Virginia House of Burgesses; colonists maintained a level of self-rule even as they did not vote in Parliament.
Education and culture:
Religious debates, settlement patterns, and economic activities contributed to distinct regional cultures and social structures.
Key dates and terms referenced
1492: Columbus’ voyage marks a turning point in world history.
1491-1607: Period 1 dating range for Indigenous peoples in the Americas and pre-contact/early-contact dynamics.
1607: Jamestown established as the first permanent English settlement in North America.
1620: Plymouth Colony founded (Mayflower Compact and early self-government concepts).
1629-1649: Massachusetts Bay Colony growth and religious governance patterns (Puritan influence).
1675-1678: King Philip’s War in New England.
1739: Stono Rebellion in South Carolina.
1787: Constitution development period (contextualized as a turning point in American political development).
1783-1789: Post-American Revolution era (not detailed in the provided transcript but implied by the context of late colonial period into early statehood).
Important concepts and connections
The Columbian Exchange reshaped global diets, economies, and demography, but also caused widespread disease that devastated Indigenous communities.
The three G’s (God, Gold, Glory) served as a shorthand for the driving forces behind European exploration, with additional emphasis on mercantile and religious competition.
Mercantilism tied colonial economies to the wealth and power of the mother country; salutary neglect allowed colonies to develop autonomous practices, fostering later tensions.
The transition from indentured servitude to race-based slavery significantly altered social structures, labor systems, and regional economies in the colonies.
Native-European interactions varied by region and were shaped by military conflict, alliances, trade networks, religion, and cultural exchange; some European groups (French, Dutch) built relatively cooperative relationships with Native tribes, while others pursued more coercive strategies.
The Atlantic world connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas through trade, migration, and governance, creating enduring political and cultural legacies in the colonial period.
Connections to broader themes
Geography and environment shaped settlement patterns, economies, and social structures (e.g., irrigation and maize in the Southwest; mixed economies in New England; plantation economies in the South).
Religion and politics were deeply intertwined, influencing colonization motives, governance models, and community life (e.g., Puritan settlements, the Great Awakening).
The emergence of a capitalist transatlantic economy and mercantilist policies helped set the stage for later conflicts between colonial interests and imperial authorities.
Timeframe references: 1492, 1491-1607, 1607, 1620, 1675-1678, 1739, 1787, 1789, 1783-1789.
Percentages and labor figures: 20\% enslaved population in some colonies; other regions varied widely.
Notes on themes for exam preparation
Be able to explain why European exploration shifted from mere exploration to colonization, including the role of technology, religion, and mercantilist aims.
Compare Native-European interactions across regions (New England vs. the South vs. the Midwest/Great Plains) in terms of labor systems, trade, and cultural exchange.
Describe the development of labor systems from Indigenous labor and indentured servitude to enslaved labor in the British colonies and its long-term effects on American society.
Understand how the Columbian Exchange transformed global ecology, agriculture, and demographics, including both positive exchanges (new crops, livestock) and negative consequences (disease, displacement).
Recognize how early colonial economies and governance evolved toward greater self-rule, setting the stage for later revolutionary movements.
Quick-reference glossary
Columbian Exchange: transatlantic transfer of crops, animals, disease, and culture between the Old and New Worlds.
Encomienda System: a labor system that granted colonists authority over Indigenous labor in exchange for protection and religious instruction, often leading to exploitation.
Mercantilism: economic theory that emphasized maximizing exports and accumulating wealth for the mother country.
Salutary Neglect: a period of relaxed enforcement of parliamentary laws in the American colonies, contributing to colonial self-government.
Stono Rebellion: a major slave uprising in 1739 in South Carolina.
Great Awakening: a religious revival movement emphasizing personal faith and questioning established church authority.
Enlightenment: a philosophical movement stressing reason, natural rights, and social contracts.
Mercantilism: an economic theory that emphasizes the importance of accumulating wealth through trade, leading to the establishment of colonies to provide raw materials and markets for the mother country.