Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy — Comprehensive Notes

Introduction to Pharmaceutical Botany

  • Pharmaceutical botany is the application of botany to pharmacy and the study of plants for medicinal use.
  • Botany is the scientific study of plants; this definition requires understanding two components: the concept of 'plants' and the 'scientific study' of those plants.
  • Includes plant classification and the study of plant diseases and interactions with the environment.
  • The principles and findings of botany underpin applied sciences such as agriculture, horticulture, and forestry.
  • Etymology:
    • From Greek: botanikos (botanical), botane (plant or herb), boskein (to feed).
    • From French: botanique (botanical).

Areas of Study in Botany

  • Anatomy: microscopic plant structure (cells and tissues).
  • Biochemistry: chemical aspects of plant life processes; includes the chemical products of a plant (Phytochemistry).
  • Biophysics: application of physics to plant life processes.
  • Cytology: structure, function, and life history of plant cells.
  • Ecology: relationship between plants and the world, both individually and in communities.
  • Genetics: plant heredity and variation; plant geneticists study genes and gene function in plants.
  • Molecular Biology: structure and function of biological macromolecules, including biochemical and molecular aspects of genetics.

History of Botany

  • Theophrastus
    • Only two of an estimated 200200 botanical treatises known to science, originally written in Greek about 300 BCE300\,\text{BCE}.
    • Initiated basic concepts of morphology, classification, and natural history of plants.
    • Works: De causis plantarum; De historia plantarum.
  • Pliny the Elder
    • Historia naturalis: an encyclopedia of 3737 volumes, compiled from about 20002000 works representing 146146 Roman and 327327 Greek authors, with 1616 volumes devoted to plants.
  • Carolus Linnaeus
    • Father of Taxonomy.
    • Species Plantarum (masterwork): descriptions of about 60006000 species worldwide known at the time.
    • Established binomial nomenclature: the denomination of each kind of plant by two words: genus name and specific name (e.g., Rosa canina\textit{Rosa\ canina}, the dog rose).
  • Leon Ma. Guerrero
    • Father of Philippine Botany; the first licensed pharmacist in the Philippines; first Filipino industrial scientist and forensic chemist; dubbed as the "Father of Philippine Pharmacy."
    • In 1918, authored a study on medicinal plants covering 174174 types with healing elements.

Scientific Method: Fundamental Tenets and Steps

  • Fundamental tenets:
    • Source of information.
    • Phenomena that can be studied.
    • Constancy and universality.
    • Basis of the scientific method.
  • Five basic steps:
    1. OBSERVATION: the action or process of observing something or someone carefully to gain information.
    2. QUESTION: a sentence worded to elicit information.
    3. HYPOTHESIS: a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
    4. RESULT/EXPERIMENT: interpret the evidence as supporting the hypothesis, but maintain an open mind and be willing to consider new data or a new hypothesis.
    5. CONCLUSION: main findings and their significance, providing a synthesis of the results and their implications.

Origin and Evolution of Plants

  • Evolution by Natural Selection
    • As organisms reproduce, offspring differ slightly from each other in their features.
    • Offspring with features that make them poorly adapted to the habitat tend not to grow well or reproduce well if they survive to maturity.
    • Offspring with features that confer good adaptation tend to grow well, reproduce abundantly, and pass on beneficial features to offspring.
  • Role of Mutation
    • New features arise periodically by mutations; natural selection determines which features are eliminated and which are passed on.
    • Evolution by natural selection is a model consistent with observations of natural organisms, experiments, and theoretical considerations.
  • Simple Cells to Complex Plants: the evolutionary trajectory from simple cellular life to complex plants.
  • Why It Matters in Pharmacy? Plant-derived medicines, pharmacognosy foundations, and drug discovery implications.

Classification of Plants

  • Two main cell types:
    • Prokaryotes – simple cells
    • Domain Archaea
    • Domain Bacteria (including cyanobacteria)
    • Eukaryotes – complex cells
    • Domain Eukarya
      • Protista: single-cell organisms (protozoans, algae); multicellular algae
      • Kingdom Mycetae: fungi (e.g., mushrooms, puffballs, bread mold)
      • Kingdom Animalia: animals
      • Kingdom Plantae: plants
  • Divisions of Kingdom Plantae:
    • Division Bryophyta (Nonvascular)
    • Division Pteridophyta (Vascular)
    • Division Gymnosperms
    • Division Magnoliophyta (Angiospermophyta)

Plant Nomenclature and Taxonomic Levels

  • I. Scientific Naming: Genus and Species; Common Name; Scientific Name
    • Common name: ?
    • Scientific name: Zea mays (example: corn)
  • II. What Comes Above Genus?
    • Examples: Mangifera = Genus (includes various mango species)
    • indica = species epithet (refers to Indian origin)
    • Full scientific name: Mangifera indica\textit{Mangifera\ indica}
  • Examples provided: Mangifera indica\textit{Mangifera\ indica}; Zea mays\textit{Zea\ mays} as another example.

Plant Ecology

  • Ecology: the scientific study of how living organisms interact with each other and their environment.
    • Greek roots: "Oikos" meaning house/home, and "Logos" meaning study.
  • What Does Ecology Study?
    • Relationships among organisms and their environment; interactions among species.
  • Two Main Types of Ecology:
    • Animal Ecology: focuses on animal behavior and interactions.
    • Plant Ecology: focuses on plant relationships with the environment and with other organisms.
  • Importance of Ecology:
    • Environmental conservation: protecting forests, clean air, biodiversity.
    • Energy conservation: efficient use of natural resources.
    • Eco-friendliness: promotes sustainable living practices.
    • Disease and pest control: helps manage plant health and prevent outbreaks.
  • Direct Interactions Among Organisms (examples):
    • Neutralism: neither organism is affected (e.g., a garden plant and a frog in a nearby canal).
    • Mutualism: both organisms benefit (e.g., butterflies and santan flowers; butterfly gets nectar, flower gets pollinated).
    • Predation: one benefits, the other is harmed (e.g., a caterpillar feeding on corn leaves; insect gains food, plant harmed).
    • Commensalism: one benefits, the other is unaffected (e.g., an orchid growing on a mango tree).
    • Amensalism: one is harmed, the other unaffected (e.g., large acacia tree blocking sunlight from grass below; grass is harmed).
    • Competition: both organisms are harmed or weakened (e.g., two eggplant plants planted too close together).

From Ecology to Pharmacology: Nature as Medicine

  • DOH-Approved Medicinal Plants (examples)
    • Lagundi
    • Scientific name: Vitex negundo\textit{Vitex\ negundo}
    • Use: For cough and asthma
    • Tsaang Gubat
    • Scientific name: Carmona retusa\textit{Carmona\ retusa}
    • Use: For stomach pain and diarrhea
    • Ampalaya
    • Scientific name: Momordica charantia\textit{Momordica\ charantia}
    • Use: For diabetes (blood sugar)
    • Niyog-niyogan
    • Scientific name: Quisqualis indica\textit{Quisqualis\ indica}
    • Use: For intestinal worms
    • Bawang
    • Scientific name: Allium sativum\textit{Allium\ sativum}
    • Use: For high blood pressure, cholesterol
    • Yerba Buena
    • Scientific name: Mentha cordifolia\textit{Mentha\ cordifolia}
    • Use: For pain relief and body aches
    • Bayabas
    • Scientific name: Psidium guajava\textit{Psidium\ guajava}
    • Use: For wound washing and oral hygiene
    • Akapulko
    • Scientific name: Cassia alata\textit{Cassia\ alata}
    • Use: For fungal skin infections
    • Ulasimang Bato
    • Scientific name: Peperomia pellucida\textit{Peperomia\ pellucida}
    • Use: For arthritis and gout (anti-inflammatory)
  • Why Are These Plants Approved? (DOH approval noted in materials)
    • These plants are listed as DOH-approved medicinal plants, indicating regulatory recognition for certain traditional or evidence-supported uses.

Notes on Nomenclature and Taxonomy Features (Additional Context)

  • Binomial nomenclature established by Linnaeus uses a two-word name: genus + species (e.g., Mangifera indica\textit{Mangifera\ indica}, Rosa canina\textit{Rosa\ canina}).
  • The genus groups related species; the specific epithet differentiates species within a genus.
  • Common names vary by language and region; scientific names provide a universal identifier.
  • Plant divisions reflect major evolutionary and structural differences (e.g., bryophytes vs angiosperms).

Summary: Connections to Pharmacy and Health

  • Plant biology underpins pharmacognosy, drug discovery, and the selection of medicinal plants for therapeutic use.
  • Understanding plant diversity, ecology, and evolution informs sustainable harvesting and conservation of medicinal resources.
  • Nomenclature and taxonomy enable precise communication about plant species across disciplines and regions.
  • Ecological interactions dictate plant health, pest dynamics, and ecosystem services relevant to agriculture and pharmacology.