Notes on Chapter 1 & Chapter 2: Police Deviance, Ethics, and Policing Paradox

Chapter 1: Overview of Police Deviance

  • Key terms and concepts

    • Police deviance, police misconduct, malfeasance, and homicide
    • Police profession vs. police occupation
    • Dark side of policing: the morally dangerous aspects of policing due to structure, setting, and discretion
    • Deviant behavior: Glaser (1971) defines deviance as any behavior or attribute deemed objectionable in a social system; this implies opportunities for legal/ethical deviance in any organization or occupation context
    • If Glaser’s hypothesis is true, American policing provides myriad opportunities for deviant behavior (misconduct, malfeasance, homicide)

  • Profession vs. occupation in American policing

    • Police work is sometimes called a profession that serves state-designated agencies; policing is the exercise of state power
    • The occupation’s structure and environment spawn opportunities for deviance
    • This tension is often described as policing’s dark side

  • Three complicating issues surrounding the dark side of American policing

    • Issue 1: The debate over whether policing is a profession or an occupation; terms used interchangeably in describing duties
    • Issue 2: Detention/corrections officers are often defined as peace officers and law enforcement officers by federal/state definitions; focus here is on local police with patrol, traffic, and investigation duties
    • Issue 3: American policing is highly fragmented (about 18,000 local agencies) with overlapping jurisdictions; even agencies like TSA perform policing duties but are not a traditional law enforcement agency
    • Despite differences, all levels face similar categories of deviance: misconduct, malfeasance, and homicide

  • Local police work: setting, discretion, and the dark side

    • Local policing occurs in low-visibility settings with high discretionary decision making
    • The work setting involves dealing with drug dealers, vice operators, marginalized individuals, and criminals
    • This contributes to the moral danger of the occupation and opportunities for deviance; policing hasn’t always been deviance-prone, but the potential exists

  • Varied views of policing among practitioners and observers

    • Some view policing as just a job
    • Others see policing as a profession akin to law, medicine, and education
    • Others view it as a calling to do good for others
    • Supporters/critics debate whether police workers perform society’s “dirty work”; Bittner described police as “the fire that is used to fight fire”

  • Notable examples of police deviance and misconduct

    • High-profile cases referenced as part of the dark side: George Floyd, Walter Scott, Rodney King, sexual assaults, robberies at crime scenes, and overtime fraud claims
    • These examples illustrate how deviance fits into the broader discussion of policing’s dark side

  • Data sources and limitations

    • The Henry A. Wallace Police Crime Database (Bowling Green State University) tracks arrests/offenses involving nonfederal American law enforcement officers (e.g., assault, driving offenses, drug offenses, fraud, homicide, larceny/theft, sex crimes, and other offenses)
    • The transcript mentions data for 2005–2019; exact numbers are not clearly stated in the text provided

  • Education and professionalization trends in policing

    • Early view: August Volmer (1905) argued that all American police officers should have a college degree and outlined a curriculum
    • National trend: 1967 President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice suggested reforming education levels; 70% of departments required a high school diploma; proposed tiers (police officer vs. police agent) with escalating education requirements
    • 1973 National Advisory on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals recommended at least one year of college; by 1982, four years of education for applicants
    • Actual adoption: none of the recommendations fully adopted; many agencies prefer applicants with college credits or two-year degrees; some require degrees for promotions or chief positions
    • National statistics (as of 2017 Fullerton report): ~52extextdivext(swornmunicipalofficerswithatleastatwo−yeardegree)52 ext{ extdiv} ext{(sworn municipal officers with at least a two-year degree)}
    • ~30extextdivext(four−yeardegree)30 ext{ extdiv} ext{(four-year degree)}
    • ~5extextdivext(graduatedegree)5 ext{ extdiv} ext{(graduate degree)}
    • State variations in higher education attainment among officers: Massachusetts, New Jersey, Minnesota, California lead in four-year degree attainment; master’s degrees among chiefs/sheriffs are notable
    • Conclusion: Police misconduct is a major social issue linked to the dark side, and education is debated as a reform strategy; however, deviance has roots in occupational structure and culture
    • Note: Education level alone does not fully determine deviant behavior; officers with college degrees also commit misconduct, malfeasance, and homicide

  • Chapter transition

    • This chapter leads into Chapter 2: Policing Paradox

Chapter 2: Policing Paradox

  • Chapter objectives

    • Understand the history and development of the police work occupation
    • Compare codes of conduct for police agencies in the United Kingdom and the United States
    • Identify rogue police officers and the dark side of policing
    • Explore the national police crises in the United Kingdom and the United States
    • Examine the American policing paradox

  • Key terms (overview)

    • Sir Robert Peel
    • Peel’s nine principles of policing
    • Code of ethics
    • International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP)
    • United Kingdom College of Policing
    • Constitutional Policing
    • Master Status
    • National Police Crisis
    • Rogue Police Officers

  • The beginning of the blue parade (Box 2.1)

    • On Saturday, 09/26/1829, ~1,000 men formed six divisions and began the process of becoming the London Metropolitan Police Service
    • They were sworn in by police commissioners, given uniforms, and reports on where to report for food and lodging
    • By Monday, six divisions were established; by Tuesday, the force marched in formation to designated stations
    • The Metropolitan Police Service was the first publicly paid police agency in the world

  • Foundations of the American police occupation/ profession

    • The American model was adapted from the London Metropolitan Police
    • Policing is the exercise of state power; the new system aimed to deter crime and disorder and to deter lower-class and marginalized populations
    • Two deterrence objectives: deterrence of crime and incapacitation of offenders
    • Noble cause corruption arises from officers framing or fabricating evidence to secure convictions for offenders who may be guilty
    • The Londons’ reforms influenced American policing, but the lack of central control in the U.S. led to corruption and brutality in some cities

  • Peelian principles and the establishment of ethical policing

    • The Gen
    • The general instruction book from the Met included the Peelian principles, which set standards for ethical police behavior in democratic policing
    • Key idea: consent of the governed, transparency, accountability, and minimal use of force
    • The Nine Peelian principles (summarized and in detail below) lay the foundation for prevention-based policing and public legitimacy

  • The Nine Peelian principles of policing (as presented)
    1) Prevent crime and disorder as an alternative to repression by force and harsh punishments
    2) Police power depends on public approval; policing should serve the public and maintain trust
    3) Public cooperation is essential for law observance; trustworthy police gain voluntary cooperation
    4) Impartial service to the law, with fairness and without regard to the substance of the laws; cooperation reduces the need for force
    5) Seek public favor not by pandering, but by impartial service, courtesy, and sacrifice; transparency and procedural justice
    6) Respect the sanctity of life and the dignity of individuals; use force only when necessary and proportionately
    7) Maintain a relationship with the public in which the police are the public and the public are the police; patrol is a duty of all citizens
    8) Strict adherence to police executive functions and restraint from usurping judiciary power; avoid extrajudicial vengeance or personal punishment
    9) Test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder, not the visible police action; emphasizes preventive policing

  • The concept of a morally dangerous workplace

    • The Met model introduced clear rules, but the environment remained morally dangerous, with temptations and opportunities for deviance
    • The workplace offered conditions for deviance: criminal opportunities, weak oversight, and the presence of a blue-brotherhood culture
    • Early evidence from the United Kingdom showed officers were dismissed for drunkenness, neglect, misconduct, and criminal acts, signaling the dark side of policing
    • As the British model spread to America, urban policing in the U.S. saw similar patterns of corruption and police abuse, often tied to political influence

  • The development of American policing and its expansion (1840–1934/40s)

    • Growth in American civic policing: 64 American cities formalized professional police agencies from 1840 to 1930
    • Year-by-year snapshots (approximate): 1840 — 8 agencies; 1850 — 26; 1860 — 16; 1870 — 7; 1880 — 3; 1900–1934 — ~34 agencies
    • Population and immigration context: 1814–1860 population roughly quadrupled to about 31 million; waves of Irish and German immigrants increased urban populations and crime concerns
    • The expansion and franchising of police departments aligned with urban growth and the need for organized control of vice, crime, and public order

  • The code of ethics and its transatlantic influence

    • The English and American policing traditions produced codes of ethics to standardize professional behavior
    • The IACP code of ethics (1987) is a key American standard; it defines professional expectations for public law enforcement officers at local, state, and federal levels
    • The UK adopted a College of Policing Code of Ethics (July 2014) with 10 standards of professional behavior, aligned with Peelian principles

  • The IACP code of ethics and constitutional policing (US focus)

    • The IACP code emphasizes service, protection, and respect, rather than a narrow focus on crime control
    • Constitutional policing centers on fairness, equal protection, and safeguarding civil liberties while enforcing laws
    • The code targets official acts and professionalism rather than private morality; it does not explicitly enumerate arrests or investigations but emphasizes core duties and ethical behavior

  • Master status and the police officer identity

    • A police officer is described as a master status that transcends other social roles; this identity shapes behavior on and off duty
    • The idea that “one is a cop, all the time” can influence discretion and public perception; the “avenging angels” syndrome describes a tendency to see enforcement as a personal mission

  • Codes of ethics: UK vs. US

    • UK: The College of Policing (2014) codifies standards of professional behavior; grounded in Peelian principles; aims to achieve a fully professional status through ethics codes
    • US: The IACP code (1987) codifies ethics for public law enforcement officers and emphasizes constitutional policing

  • Violations of codes and corruption cases

    • Historical patterns of corruption in the US include the Knapp Commission findings (late 1960s–1970s) on NYPD corruption
    • Earlier NYPD scandals included Lexow (1894), Curran (1932), Seabury (1950), and Harry Gross investigations
    • The Knapp Commission and subsequent reform exposed systemic corruption and the need for oversight and accountability
    • In the UK, policing scandals raised concerns about integrity and reform, signaling that corruption can occur in centralized and decentralized systems

  • Whistleblowing and the code of silence

    • The “code of silence” is a peer-norm that discourages reporting misconduct; however, whistleblowing exists and can be protected in some jurisdictions
    • Examples cited include whistleblower actions within NYPD and other departments in pursuit of accountability
    • The absence of a universal, immutable code of silence means cultural and organizational factors determine its strength

  • National police crises and public trust

    • United States: Police violence and controversial killings (e.g., Ferguson 2014; Tyre Nichols case) sparked a national crisis and debates about policing, accountability, and reforms
    • UK: High-profile incidents and investigations (e.g., 2011 IPCC concerns about deaths in custody, racism, misogyny) contributed to a metropolitan policing crisis
    • Public trust data: 2022 Gallup poll reported that only 45% of respondents had a great deal or quite a lot of confidence in the police; 53% of White respondents vs. 34% of respondents from other races expressed confidence
    • 2023/2022 trend data and task force commentaries emphasize that fair treatment of all citizens is essential for democratic policing; the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing highlighted trust as central to effective policing
    • UK crisis specifics (2021–2022): Sarah Everard case and subsequent vetting failures revealed deeper issues of misogyny, racism, and misconduct; reports suggested that vetting failures allowed problematic officers to be hired and retained
    • Current reform discussions include calls to break up large police structures or reprioritize funding to social services (housing, mental health, addiction services) as part of addressing systemic issues

  • Public trust, legitimacy, and democratic policing

    • Across both countries, democratic policing hinges on transparency, accountability, and civilian oversight
    • The existence of a “dark side” challenges the normative ideals of policing; reform efforts aim to align practice with the value of zero tolerance for abuse of power

  • Key conclusions and takeaways

    • Police work is a morally dangerous occupation with persistent opportunities for deviance due to structure, culture, and discretion
    • There is a longstanding debate about whether policing should be treated as a profession; the profession/occupation debate continues, with reforms focusing on education, ethics, accountability, and civilian oversight
    • While most officers perform admirably, a measurable minority engage in misconduct, malfeasance, or homicide; robust data, oversight, whistleblower protections, and technology (e.g., body-worn cameras) have changed some dynamics, but do not eliminate the dark side
    • The absence of a universal “dark side” is a societal expectation; yet, the combination of historical patterns and contemporary crises demonstrates the ongoing challenges of ensuring ethical policing

Key terms and concepts (glossary)

  • Sir Robert Peel: Founder of the London Metropolitan Police; advocated policing by consent, public service, and moral governance of policing

  • Peel’s nine principles of policing: The foundational ethical framework for public policing; summarized above under the Nine Peelian principles

  • Code of ethics: A formal guideline outlining acceptable and expected conduct for a police organization; used to establish a culture of integrity and reduce ambiguity in ethical decision-making

  • IACP (International Association of Chiefs of Police): American professional body that codified the IACP Code of Ethics (1987) for public law enforcement officers

  • United Kingdom College of Policing: Official body setting standards for policing practice, ethics, and professional behavior in England and Wales; bases standards on Peelian principles

  • Constitutional Policing: A policing philosophy centered on upholding constitutional rights and ensuring fair, due-process-based law enforcement

  • Master Status: A social status that dominates an individual’s identity across contexts (e.g., the police officer as a master status)

  • National Police Crisis: Broad term describing periods of crisis and reform in policing in both the United States and the United Kingdom, centered on ethics, trust, and accountability

  • Rogue Police Officers: Officers who engage in serious criminal or unethical conduct; part of the broader discussion of police deviance

  • Additional notes on ethics and practice

    • The code of ethics defines accepted behavior for public policing and informs what constitutes deviance from an ethical perspective
    • The Peelian framework emphasizes transparency, consent, proportionate force, and public accountability as the core bulwarks of legitimate policing
    • The code of ethics in both countries illustrates how professional values are codified to guide behavior and establish norms that constrain deviance

  • Notable incidents and reforms (selected examples)

    • United States: Knapp Commission (NYPD corruption) and earlier investigations (Lexow 1894, Curran 1932, Seabury 1950, Harry Gross) highlighted systemic corruption and the need for oversight
    • United Kingdom: 2011 IPCC concerns about deaths and serious injuries in policing; 2021–2022 cases of misconduct, misogyny, and the Everard-related reforms; Vetting failures identified in 2021–2022 reviews
    • The ongoing crisis context in both nations emphasizes the need for ethical standards, transparency, and accountability to maintain public trust and legitimacy

  • Final takeaway

    • There should be no dark side in policing; reforms aim to minimize opportunities for deviance, increase transparency, and uphold democratic policing norms