World History Study Guide: 600–1450 CE

Nature and Causes of Changes in the World History Framework (600–1450)

Context and Significance: * The period spanning $600$ – $1450$ CE accounts for $20\%$ of the Exam Cram Packet. * It is characterized by significant shifts in political, economic, and cultural frameworks globally.
Major Events Causing Global Change: * Emergence of Islam: The rise of Islam and the subsequent Islamic empire. * Industrial Revolution in China: Occurred under the Sung (Song) Dynasty. * Spread of Neo-Confucianism: Developed in China as a mixture of Confucianism with elements of Buddhism. * Great Schism in Christianity: The formal division between the Eastern and Western churches into Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Christianity; the primary theological dispute concerned the use of icons. * Camels in the Sahara: The introduction and use of camels significantly increased trans-Saharan trade. * The Black Death: A pandemic that decimated Europe’s population and crippled its political and economic systems. * Italian Renaissance: Marked the beginning of European dominance in global culture.

Emergence of New Empires and Political Systems

Tang Dynasty ( $618$ – $906$ ): * Utilized a merit-based bureaucracy. * While the system originated during the Han Dynasty, the Tang fully developed it by recruiting government officials who were well-educated, loyal, and efficient. * Intellectual ability was the primary factor for winning posts, though powerful families still used resources to place relatives in positions.
Mongols: Rise of the largest land empire in history.
Caliphate System: A political-religious system where the religious leader and the political leader are the same individual.
Feudalism: A hierarchical social and political structure consisting of Kings, Lords, Knights, and Peasants.

Continuities and Breaks Within the Period

Byzantine Empire: * Remained a major factor throughout the period, governing numerous diverse groups of people. * Its success was largely attributed to a strong bureaucracy, drawing comparisons to the Tang Dynasty in China.
Viking Raids: * Challenged Europeans to develop better protection methods. * Directly led to the beginning of European feudalism. * Vikings primarily invaded rural areas rather than large towns or cities.
The Crusades: * Involved Europeans traveling to the Holy Land. * Created a massive European desire for Eastern goods, which eventually led to the Age of Exploration.
Mongolian Empires: Introduced a new group of invaders from Mongolia under the leadership of Genghis Khan.
Mamluk Rule in Egypt: Non-Arab slaves in Egypt who successfully overthrew the Egyptians and established their own rule.

The Islamic World: Dar al-Islam

Unifying Force: * Islam served as a unifying cultural and economic force across Eurasia and Africa. * Unity was achieved through shared religion (Islam), a common language (Arabic), and similar artistic styles. * Islamic art forbids the depiction of human figures, resulting in a focus on geometric designs (compare to European Catholicism).
Political Structures: * Caliphate: A theocracy where the political and religious leader is the same; governed by Sharia (Islamic Law). * Sultanate: A monarchical political structure.
Arts, Sciences, and Technologies: * Art: Included Arabesque (geometric) designs, miniature painting in Persia, poetry, and mosques featuring domes, pillars, and minarets. * Science: * Discovered the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the sun. * Developed a calendar more accurate than Europe's. * Improved the astrolabe and produced various medical treatises. * Utilized steel for swords. * Adopted paper and printing from the Chinese. * Math: Developed Algebra, utilized Arabic numerals, the decimal system, and the concept of zero.

Interregional Networks and Contacts

Trans-Sahara Trade: * Commodities: Gold, ivory, slaves, and spices from below the Sahara; salt, cloth, and metalwork from the Sahara region. * Geography: Across the Sahara between North Africa/Europe and West Africa. * Impact: Aided the rise of African empires in West Africa and spread Islam to the region.
Indian Ocean Trade: * Commodities: Slaves, ivory, gold, and iron from Africa; porcelain from China; pottery from Burma; cloth from India. * Mechanics: Made possible by the monsoon winds; major route between East Africa and Asia. * Participants: Arabs, Indians, Malayans, and Indonesians; China participated until the $1400s$ . * Impact: Brought prosperity to East Africa; led to trading cities like Sofala and Kilwa; created the Swahili language (a mix of Arabic and Bantu); brought Islam to coastal Bantu speakers.
Silk Road: * Commodities: Silks and porcelain from China; woolen/linen cloth, glass, horses, and ivory from partners. * Geography: From China across Asia to the Middle East. * Impact: Spread Buddhism and Christianity; spurred European interest in water routes to China.
Missionary Outreach: * Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism all utilized missionaries traveling through Asia.
Religious Contacts: * Islam and Buddhism: Characterized by trade and peace. * Islam and Christianity: Characterized by the Crusades and war.

The Impact and Importance of the Mongols

Scope of Empire: Created the largest land empire in world history, conquering China, India, the Middle East, and Russia.
Pax Mongolica: An extended period of peace (compared to Pax Romana) that followed initial disruptions.
Economic Impact: Improved trade across Asia and Eastern Europe by protecting merchants and spreading the use of paper money, banking, and letters of credit.
Cultural Impact: Spread various cultures and technologies across their vast territory.

The Rise of the Mongols

Origin: Pastoralists from the Central Asian steppes (dry grasslands) organized into kinship groups called clans.
Causes for Migration: Likely a severe drought forced them to seek new pastures; their superior horsemanship sustained their success.
Genghis Khan: * Born Temujin; unified the clans around $1200$ CE and took the title Genghis Khan ("universal leader"). * Conquered much of Asia over $21$ years; cleared the way for his successors to conquer China.
Military Organization: * Followed a Chinese model: Armies of $10,000$ , divided into $1,000$ -man brigades, $100$ -man companies, and $10$ -man platoons. * Generals were kinsmen or trusted friends. * Tactics: Included surprise tactics, fake retreats, false leads, catapults, and gunpowder charges.
Containment of Expansion: * Eurasia: Stopped by the death of Ogodai (son of Genghis). Leaders returned to the capital to select a replacement, causing the invasion of Europe to lose momentum. * Islamic Lands: Contained by the Mamluk armies of Egypt (former slaves of the Abbasid Caliphate) who matched Mongol horsemanship. The Mamluks defeated the Mongols in $1260$ before they reached the Dardanelle strait.

Mongol Organization and Assimilation

Khanates: The empire was divided into four political organizations, each ruled by a relative of Genghis, with the ruler in Central Asia designated as the "Great Khan."
Rule and Tribute: Mongols were often content to extract tribute (payments) and allowed conquered peoples to maintain customs.
Assimilation: Mongols often adopted the religions and customs of those they ruled. * Example: The Il-khan that conquered the last caliphate converted to Islam and admired the sophisticated culture and technology of his subjects. * Outcome: The empire split apart as Mongols were assimilated into conquered cultures.

China’s Internal and External Expansion

Key Innovations: Paper money, mass production of tea, porcelain, silk, and Champa rice.
Trade and Exploration: Canton became a major trading city; Zheng He led significant maritime exploration.
Economic Revolutions (Tang and Song): * Agriculture: Shifted from wheat/barley in the north to rice in the south after conquering Vietnam. * Champa Rice: Fast-ripening strain from Vietnam allowing two crops per year. * Tools: Heavy iron plow (north) and water buffalo (south). * Irrigation: Extensive systems allowed expansion away from rivers. * Population Growth: Rose from $45$ million in $600$ CE to $115$ million by $1200$ CE. * Urbanization: capital city Xi'an (Tang) had a population of $2,000,000$ ; Hangzhou (Song) had $1,000,000$ . Other cities exceeded $100,000$ . Specialized farming (fruits/vegetables) catered to urban markets. * Technology: * Porcelain: Thinner, lighter "chinaware." * Iron/Steel: Production increased tenfold between the $9^{th}$ and $12^{th}$ centuries. * Inventions: Gunpowder (flamethrowers and crude bombs by the $11^{th}$ century), movable type printing, and the magnetic compass. * Finance: Paper money replaced scarce copper. "Flying cash" (letters of credit) and checks were used for banking.

Sinification: Chinese Influence on Surrounding Areas

Japan: Attempted to copy Tang bureaucracy and absolute emperor via "Taika reforms" ( $646$ – $794$ ); adopted Confucianism, Chinese writing, architecture, and Buddhism. Notably rejected foot binding.
Korea: Adopted Buddhism, writing, architecture, porcelain, and printing. Attempted bureaucracy failed due to noble opposition.
Vietnam: Adopted Buddhism, agricultural techniques, bureaucracy, civil service exams, and military organization. Confucianism was limited to elites due to the high status of women and strong Buddhist influence.
Neo-Confucianism: * Reconciled Confucianism with Buddhism by addressing spiritual questions (nature of the soul). * li: A concept defining a spiritual presence similar to the universal spirit in Hinduism/Buddhism. * Influenced thought across China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.

Developments in Europe and the Amerindian World

Europe: * Church took control of all life aspects after Rome fell. * Social hierarchy: Pope as ultimate authority; Feudalism as defense. * 1054 Schism: Divided into Eastern Orthodox (selected by Byzantine emperor) and Roman Catholic (Pope selected by cardinals). Issues included priest celibacy and papal authority.
Amerindian Civilizations Comparison: * Maya: Agricultural trade, jade craft; math, astronomy, medicine, pyramids, hieroglyphic writing; patriarchy, city-states; collapsed due to environmental overuse or warfare. * Aztec: Mercenaries/war provided slaves; human sacrifice; capital Tenochtitlan; patriarchy, emperor, rigid class system, tributary states; fell to smallpox and Spanish-allied tributary states. * Inca: Agricultural (potatoes, quinoa, guinea pigs); roads, quipu (record keeping), textiles; patriarchy, dynastic emperor, rigid class system; fell to smallpox and Spanish-allied tributary states.

Demographic and Environmental Changes

Nomadic Migrations: * Arabs: Conquered North Africa, Spain, Central/East Africa; unified politics, spread Islam, preserved Greek/Roman culture. * Turks: Conquered Central Asia, Middle East, Asia Minor; defeated Byzantine Empire; triggered Crusades. * Mongols: Conquered Persia, China, Russia, Eastern Europe; created Pax Mongolica; spread gunpowder, paper money, and the plague. * Slavs: Moved through Eastern/Central Europe; spread Orthodox Christianity. * Vikings: Raided European waterways; forced Europeans to seek protection; took slaves to Scandinavia. * Bantus: Spread language, iron-working knowledge, and farming throughout Africa.
Plague Consequences ( $14^{th}$ Century): * Killed up to $30\%$ of the population. * Led to massive economic changes, shifted population centers, and caused lawlessness.

Comparative Perspectives

Japanese vs. European Feudalism: * Japan: Established mid- $800s$ ; Ruler was Emperor (puppet) or Shogun (real power); ranks included Daimyo, Samurai, and Peasants. * Europe: Established by $800s$ ; Ruler was King/Queen/Emperor or Pope; ranks included Lords, Knights, and Serfs.
Global Travelers: * Marco Polo: Late $13^{th}$ century; traveled from Venice to China; served Kublai Khan for $17$ years. His stories were published while in prison, sparking European amazement and disbelief. * Ibn Battuta: $14^{th}$ century Moroccan legal scholar; traveled through Islamic empires, Mesopotamia, Persia, Red Sea, East Africa (Kilwa), India, Black Sea, Spain, and Mali. His detailed journals provide vast historical data.