Police, Use of Force, and Policing Perspectives — Study Notes

Course Setup and Materials

• You may have a course packet for note-taking; personal notes are fine too. You can agree or disagree with what I say; you are responsible for judgment and understanding, not blind acceptance.
• The instructor’s role: to provide information; you can form your own conclusions.
• You’ll have a mix of lectures and guest talks (at least two, possibly three):
  • Guests from state attorney general’s office, UDPD, other police agencies to share real-world experiences.
  • Goal: broaden understanding beyond the instructor’s perspective and connect to practical field experience.
• Online information (e.g., social media and the Internet) isn’t always accurate; learn to assess background, motivation, and reliability of information.
• Course packets (or alternative note-taking methods) are intended for your study and exam preparation; you can use notebooks or laptops if you prefer.
• When exams come, this packet is what you study from; keep it organized.
• Administrative note: if you don’t see your name on the attendance/list, add it at the bottom; the instructor will verify.
• Safety note: the instructor jokes about campus safety but emphasizes real concerns (e.g., campus violence history, active shooter prep). A guest lecture on active shooters may be introduced (Lt. Ferriel) to discuss this topic.

In-Class Safety and Real-World Relevance

• Mention of campus safety history (e.g., Columbine as a point of reflection) to emphasize preparedness.
• The instructor may arrange discussions with law enforcement professionals to discuss active shooter scenarios and safety planning.
• Real-world relevance: students should understand how information has to be interpreted in context and how to respond in emergencies.

Topic Structure and Preparation

• Each topic has a corresponding discussion-question set on Canvas; if you miss class, check Canvas for questions.
• Sample discussion prompts include: why we need police officers, whether defunding is viable, and if more police on the street deters crime.
• The instructor models a Socratic approach: encourage questions and reflections rather than rote memorization.

Why Do We Need Police Officers?

• Core functions of policing discussed: protect society, deter crime, investigate crime, provide services, and protect victims.
• Narrowing the purpose: beyond generic protection, officers are expected to reduce crime, provide assistance to victims, and maintain social order.
• Real-world caveats: officers encounter people with mental-health needs; training is limited (roughly 3–5 hours in academy); recognizing mental-health situations is essential but challenging.
• Statistics and discussion prompts (approximate, for classroom use): how many people killed by police annually in the US?
  • Rough estimate: about $900 ext{ to }1100$ per year (varies by data source).
  • Of those killed, estimates suggest
  • roughly $\frac{1}{4}$ to $\frac{1}{3}$ may involve individuals with mental-health concerns.
• Police use of force is a central concern; the goal is to neutralize threats to others, not only the suspect.

Main Strategies in American Policing (Turn of the 20th Century Onward)

• Three broad strategies commonly cited:
  • Preventive patrol
  • Rapid response
  • Criminal investigation
• Additional framing: "protect and serve" as a public-facing slogan; other goals include ensuring social stability, enforcing laws, and maintaining the status quo when relevant to governance and power structures.
• These perspectives set the baseline for later theoretical discussions (consensus vs. conflict).

Consensus Perspective (Normative Paradigm)

• Origin and core idea:
  • State represents the majority’s interests; laws and regulations reflect common standards agreed upon by society.
  • Policing is legitimate when it enforces these agreed-upon standards and protects the public.
• Key implication: police are legitimate when their actions align with the collective will and welfare of the majority.
• Caveats and critique: not everyone agrees; some groups may experience policing differently due to race, class, or political power dynamics.
• Example discussion prompts include: would adding more officers to deter crime be effective? Does concentrating police in high-tourist or high-visibility areas deter crime, or shift crime to other areas?

Conflict Perspective (Power and Structure)

• Core idea:
  • Police serve those who hold power and help maintain the status quo that benefits the powerful.
  • Policing can reinforce social and economic inequalities and protect dominant groups.
• Historical context: links to group/class conflict and power relations in society; policing is shaped by those in power and the structures they uphold.
• Contemporary concerns: how policing may disproportionately affect minority communities and how immigration enforcement and other policies intersect with policing practices.

Non-Negotiable Use of Force: The Core Characteristic of Policing

• The central feature of policing, and what makes the profession distinctive: the use of nonnegotiable force when necessary.
• Conceptual distinction:
  • Nonnegotiable force: officers must be able to use force if needed to handle emergencies; there is no room for negotiating the instrument or timing of the force in the moment of threat.
  • This is different from other professions (e.g., medical treatment where the patient or guardian must consent).
• Illustrative analogy: comparing hospital treatment where consent is required to police use of force where control is exercised in a way that cannot be negotiated in the moment of danger.
• Practical implications: training, policy, and accountability measures focus on when and how force may be used, with emphasis on minimizing harm and protecting the public.
• Examples and clarifications:
  • Police arrival at a scene to stop criminal activity is itself a demonstration of force (presence and authority).
  • Other occupations that use force (e.g., bank robbers) employ force to threaten or coerce, but their use of force is illicit and illegitimate.
  • Park rangers and other federal agents may have law-enforcement authority and use force differently depending on jurisdiction and mandate.

Territorial Scope and Legitimacy of Force

• Police have territorial authority to enforce laws across the jurisdiction they serve.
• The concept of legitimacy involves whether the force used is considered acceptable within a given political and legal framework.
• Distinguishing features of policing include:
  • Legitimacy of force in the context of public safety and order
  • The potential for abuse and the need for checks and accountability
• The discussion notes that various occupations (e.g., park rangers, post office investigators) may carry firearms or have enforcement powers, but their scope and training vary; this is used to illustrate how policing is a spectrum, not a single uniform practice.

Practical Realities: Service vs Enforcement, and Resource Allocation

• In many large departments, the bulk of time is spent on service work rather than direct criminal enforcement; a common figure cited: around 40 ext{%} of personnel may be focused on enforcement in some large departments (e.g., NYPD), with the remainder handling service tasks.
• The common public image of police as “crime fighters” is not fully reflective of day-to-day duties.
• Resource constraints: more officers on the street do not automatically translate into lower crime rates; sustained deployments are expensive and may not be feasible.
• Alternative strategies focus on structural investments in communities: improving education, job opportunities, and social capital, particularly in poor or minority neighborhoods, to address underlying causes of crime.
• Concept of hot-spot policing: focusing resources on specific high-crime pockets (e.g., blocks, shopping malls, large parking lots) can reduce crime in those areas, but is not a universal solution.

Crime Trends and Public Perception

• Historical crime trends:
  • Post-1960s social turmoil spurred debates about policing; consensus vs. conflict frames remain central.
  • Since the turn of the 1990s, crime rates have declined across most major US cities, including historically high-crime areas like Washington, DC; crime levels in many cities are roughly one-third to one-half of their peak levels in the 1980s and 1990s.
  • This decline is widely observed across multiple jurisdictions, though there is ongoing debate about causes and the role of policing strategies vs. broader social factors.
• Public misperceptions: some sources claim historically high crime rates; students should be able to critically assess such claims against data trends.
• A note on data interpretation: crime data are complex and can be influenced by reporting practices, policy changes, and policing strategies.

What Aligned with Police Legitimacy? Key Concepts to Remember

• Legitimacy vs. illegitimacy: legitimate force is used in a manner consistent with legal authority and public trust; abuse or excessive force undermines legitimacy.
• The distinction between coercive force and legitimate force: coercive force is used by individuals or groups outside approved law-enforcement channels; police use coercive force within a framework of lawful authority and accountability.
• The role of policy and reform: since the 1960s, responses have included reforms and regulations aimed at controlling the use of force and improving accountability.
• The ongoing debate: consensus vs. conflict perspectives provide different explanations for why policing operates as it does and how it should be reformed.

Exam and Discussion Focus Areas

• The three main policing strategies and their evolution: preventive patrol, rapid response, criminal investigation.
• The normative (consensus) perspective and the power-focused (conflict) perspective on policing.
• The unique feature of police use of force: nonnegotiable force and its implications for training, policy, and accountability.
• The scope of police authority and territory: what constitutes legitimate policing across a jurisdiction.
• The distinction between service-oriented duties and enforcement-focused duties within large departments.
• The impact of social structure, poverty, and policy on crime and policing effectiveness.
• The limits of “more officers equals less crime” and the evidence on hot-spot policing and social investment as crime deterrents.

Quick Reference: Key Terms and Concepts

• Nonnegotiable force: the use of force by police that cannot be negotiated in the moment; legally authorized and subject to policy and accountability.
• Consensus perspective: policing serves the majority’s interests and enforces broadly accepted norms; legitimacy depends on alignment with public will.
• Conflict perspective: policing serves those in power and maintains the status quo; legitimacy is contingent on power dynamics and social equity.
• Preventive patrol: the practice of increasing police presence to deter crime and reassure the public.
• Rapid response: quickly responding to incidents to preserve evidence, deter further crime, and apprehend suspects.
• Criminal investigation: the process of solving crimes after they occur.
• Hotspot policing: targeted enforcement at high-crime locations to reduce crime in those areas.
• Structural/social investments: efforts to improve education, employment opportunities, and community resources to address crime at its root.
• Legitimacy and accountability: mechanisms that ensure police actions comply with laws and respect civil rights.
• Territory: the geographic scope within which police authority is recognized; the legitimacy of police use of force is often connected to this territorial framework.

Final Takeaways

• Policing is a complex institution shaped by competing theories (consensus vs. conflict) and constrained by resources, social structure, and policy.
• The distinctive feature of policing is the use of nonnegotiable force, which requires careful training, clear policy, and robust accountability.
• Real-world effectiveness involves more than simply increasing officer counts; sustained success depends on addressing structural factors, targeted enforcement strategies, and community investments.
• Students should be able to discuss and critique different policing theories, understand the limits of force, and connect academic concepts to current events and policy debates.