Greek Manner and the New Style of Giotto — Comprehensive Study Notes

Context and lecture setup

• Instructor welcomes students, notes seating flexibility, and anticipates moving if needed.
• Attendance sheets circulated; a slide sheet with names and terms will be provided.
• Topic for today: the Greek manner (Menaia Graeca) and the new style of Giotto.
• Friday plan: continued discussion with a focus on Vasari readings and artworks at tables; bring Vasari, laptops/tablets, and a deck of images for table discussion.
• Post-class Friday: brief Moodle quiz to test general comprehension of the reading (likely multiple choice) and not time-consuming.
• Moodle update: Part one study set is now uploaded for students to copy and study; images added where missing previously.
• Acknowledge contextual catch-up for newcomers to art history; emphasize that repeated exposure will make the background and terms more familiar over time.
• Preview: today centers on Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto and the Greek manner; Friday will include discussion and further images for Vasari readings.

Geographic and political map context (orientation)

• The pope is in Avignon (Babylonian captivity context) and Rome is depleted in population.
• Florence and Siena are the major centers of activity; some activity near the border of the two.
• Constantinople is a key reference point; fall of Constantinople is cited as a major moment for exchange of images.
• Movable vs fixed works:
  • Movable pictures: panel paintings that could be carried in processions (e.g., the Virgin of Tenderness, also known as Hodegitriah in Greek).
  • Altar pieces were typically fixed behind the altar; portable in practice for processions.

Key terms and concepts introduced today

• Menaia Graeca / Menaria Greca: Greek manner, a term coined by Vasari to describe Greek-style or Byzantine-influenced panel paintings.
• Movable pictures: panel paintings that could be moved (carried in processions) but not frescoes embedded in walls.
• Hodegitriah (Virgin Hodegitria): Greek for “she who shows the way”; Mary shows the way to salvation and points to Christ.
• Theotokos: Mary as bearer of God; Mary as the Queen of Heaven; Mary depicted as intercessor and church as ecclesia.
• Maesta: a type of image of the Virgin Mary enthroned with the Christ Child, surrounded by angels and saints; a central devotional form in Italy.
• Thrown of Wisdom: Mary as the throne on which Christ is seated; symbolizing Christ as the Logos and the wisdom of God.
• Predella (Praedella): the lower register of an altarpiece with scenes from the life of the Virgin or Christ; often used to narrate related episodes.
• Grisailles / Grisaille: grayscale painting technique to imitate marble, used to suggest marble sculptural relief within paintings.
• Typology: coordination of Old Testament events and figures with New Testament events to illustrate eternal truths and biblical prefigurations of Christ.
• Usury and civic patronage: bank families (e.g., the Scrovegni) commissioning chapels to atone for usury; the Arena Chapel as a morally corrective civic project.
• Laudaesi (Laudesi): confraternities dedicated to devotional practices for Mary, funding chapels, altars, and liturgical activities.

The Greek manner: characteristics and theology

• Visual language emphasizes immateriality of the church and heavenly realms:
  • Gold backgrounds signal the heavenly realm and divine glow; light from candlelight creates radiance beyond human perception.
  • Emphasis on pattern and frontal, two-dimensional representation rather than fully modeled anatomy.
  • Figures face forward; viewer engagement often limited or ceremonial rather than intimate.
• Material wealth and heavenly wealth:
  • Deep blue cloak of the Virgin often made with aquamarine lapis lazuli, a very costly pigment sourced from Afghanistan; contracts specify ounces/weight to be used.
  • Gold backgrounds may imply ivory-throne settings and gem-studded or gold-lit chairs.
• Theological message through form:
  • The Virgin Mary as Queen of Heaven, enthroned; Christ blesses from the throne or sits upon the throne of wisdom.
  • Theotokos as intercessor: through Mary, prayers are channeled to Christ and salvation is mediated via the Church and Eucharist.
• Structural and stylistic traits:
  • Immensity and immateriality of heaven, not an attempt to mimic human anatomy or perspective.
  • Drapery patterns convey form rather than actual musculature; drapery folds communicate weight and movement in a stylized way.
  • Use of flat spaces with careful attention to pattern and line work; gold background as a signifier of sacred space.
• Iconography and sacred space conventions drawn from Byzantine and medieval church tradition:
  • Angels and prophets sometimes arranged in bands around the Virgin and Child.
  • The “veil” or curtain motif around altarpieces, used to preserve the mystery of the Eucharist and the heavenly revelation.
• Example types discussed:
  • Virgin of Tenderness (Hodegitria) variations, illustrating the mystery of the incarnation and Mary’s mediating role.
  • The throne images (Throne of Wisdom) that emphasize Christ's divine intellect and authority.

Cimabue, Duccio, Giotto: three stages of Italian painting within the Greek manner

• Cimabue (early) characteristics:
  • Heavy use of pattern and gold; angular drapery; Byzantine-influenced frontal presentation.
  • Mary often seated on a throne with a strongly two-dimensional appearance and a relatively fixed sense of space.
  • Viewed as a bridge figure by Vasari toward naturalism, hinting at movement toward three-dimensionality.
• Duccio (Siena) characteristics:
  • Slightly more modeling than Cimabue, with subtle shading beginning to hint at weight and volume.
  • The Maesta (Duccio’s Maesta): large-scale Mary enthroned with Christ, surrounded by angels and saints; a civic as well as sacred object for Siena.
  • Ruculai Madonna (Ruchulai Madonna): Mary seated on a throne, child blessing; Christ dressed in a way that signals both humanity and divinity; greater emphasis on body and weight than Cimabue, though still retains some Byzantine influence.
  • Predella scenes (below) relating to the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ; includes annunciation, nativity, adoration, marriage at Cana, and other episodes tied to the incarnation.
  • The Maesta in Siena Cathedral features a front-and-back altarpiece; a major civic object carried in processions with the town and clergy after its completion.
  • The Siena Maesta remains with parts in the Met and other collections, with the central portion still housed in the Siena Cathedral Treasury.
• Giotto (Florence) characteristics and contribution:
  • Viewed as bridging international Gothic with classicalism and early Renaissance naturalism.
  • Omni scienti Madonna (All Saints Madonna) at All Saints Church in Florence: shows stronger modeling, weight, and three-dimensionality than Cimabue or Duccio.
  • Figures begin to show realistic weight, subtle shading, and a sense of form that approaches sculpture; faces are more modelled with light and shadow; drapery reveals underlying body structures (shoulder, torso, knee).
  • Angels and saints arranged in space that suggests a shift toward a more volumetric, readable composition, moving beyond flat patterning.
  • Vasari credits Giotto with bringing a sense of naturalism and light to painting, sometimes described as translating Greek (Byzantine) into Latin (Roman/classical) terms. This is encapsulated in the quote attributed to a goldsmith, Cianini: “Giotto translated Greek into Latin.”
• General comparison (Cimabue vs Giotto) discussed in break-out conversation:
  • Viewers note that Giotto’s figures are more engaged with the viewer and with the space; Cimabue’s figures are more patterns and frontal, with limited engagement.
  • Giotto introduces weight, shading, and torso articulation; Cimabue relies on flatness and pattern.
  • Discussion touches on whether Greek/Byzantine influence persists in Giotto’s work and whether Giotto’s gains are due to access to classical sculpture influences or to reinterpretation of Greek-influenced painting into a Latin/Roman idiom.

The Arch in Padua: Giotto’s Arena Chapel (Scrovegni Chapel)

• Location and patron:
  • In Padua, financed by Enrico Scrovegni (Scrovigni) and his family, bankers by trade.
  • The family’s wealth was connected to usury, a sin in medieval Christian doctrine; Dante’s Inferno even names Ronaldo Scrovegni for usury.
  • The chapel sits atop a former Roman arena site, hence the name Arena Chapel.
• The theological and civic rationale:
  • Atone for the sin of usury through good works: endow a chapel to celebrate Mass, pray for souls, and secure salvation for the family and city.
  • The chapel is both a sacred space and a civic monument; the Scrovegni family uses it to invest in their spiritual and social legacy.
• Architectural and material features:
  • The chancel behind the altar is painted with the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ; the exterior wall features the Last Judgment.
  • The ceiling is a deep ultramarine blue (Lapis lazuli) sky—an extremely expensive pigment imported from Afghanistan and ground into a matrix to bind to the wall.
  • The blue sky on the ceiling represents heaven’s vast expanse and the heavens above the sacred space; the use of ultramarine underscores the chapel’s preciousness and significance.
• The cycle structure and narrative flow:
  • The fresco cycle is arranged in bands that wrap around the chapel in a continuous sequence:
  • Top register: Life of the Virgin.
  • Middle register: Life and ministry of Christ.
  • Bottom register: Passion and death of Christ.
  • The three cycles are interrelated through typology and the overarching salvation narrative.
• The predella and supporting scenes:
  • The predella provides smaller scenes related to the Virgin and Christ’s lives, continuing the narrative at the base of the altar.
• Notable iconography and motifs:
  • The Last Judgment on the exterior aligns with the chapel’s purpose as a place of salvation and mercy; survivors go to heaven, while damnation is implied on the exterior.
  • The use of grisaille in some areas to mimic marble and the integration of rich color and gold elsewhere to convey sacred magnificence.
• Thematic dialogue with typology and miracle status:
  • The Scrovegni Chapel cycles incorporate typology that links Old Testament figures and events to New Testament fulfillment (e.g., Elijah’s ascent prefiguring Christ, Jonah's three days prefiguring Christ’s death and resurrection).
  • The notion that these works embody miraculous power or status (as miraculous originals) and could function as conduits for healing or intercession for Florence and Padua alike.

Predellas and companion imagery: scenes of the life of the Virgin and Christ

• The Predella (Praedella) scenes within Maesta-like panels and Arena Chapel cycles:
  • Scenes drawn from Gospel texts and medieval life of the Virgin and Christ, including the Annunciation, Nativity, Adoration of the Shepherds and Magi, Presentation at the Temple, the Marriage at Cana, and other life events.
  • These scenes are arranged in small panels framing the main central image to reinforce the incarnation narrative and connect Old Testament promises with New Testament fulfillment.
• Thematic connections:
  • The predella panels function as a didactic tool, guiding the viewer through the life of Mary and Jesus and highlighting the Incarnation as the central mystery.
  • The predella’s storytelling is linked to the main cycles above and below, presenting a continuous meditation on salvation history.

Thematic and symbolic connections across works

• The sacred space language (Gothic vs Greek) and typology:
  • International Gothic influence is visible in the architecture’s pointed arches and finials around the Maesta and predella frames.
  • The heavenly Jerusalem’s imagery—the walls, gates, and jeweled spaces—echoes the earthly sacred space’s decorative logic and helps viewers conceive of heaven as a perceivable, yet transcendent, realm.
• Typology examples cited in the Arena Chapel and elsewhere:
  • Elijah on the chariot of fire juxtaposed with Christ’s ascension as a prefiguration of Christian resurrection.
  • Jonah and the whale as typological prefiguration of Christ’s death and resurrection.
  • A bestiary motif: a lion giving birth to cubs dead, then revived by the mother’s licking—interpreted typologically as resurrection imagery.
• The role of miracles and relic-like status of images:
  • Some images are believed to have miraculous properties, functioning as “screens” between viewer and saint, and carrying a devotional authority beyond mere aesthetics.
  • Confraternities (Lauda di) and civic patrons fund tabernacles and devotional images to help the community’s souls and ensure divine favor for the city.

Thematic implications and broader significance

• The shift from Greek/Byzantine to Italian Renaissance aesthetics:
  • Giotto’s move toward naturalism and three-dimensionality marks a turning point in Western art, bridging medieval icon painting with the Renaissance’s humanism and classical sculptural influence.
  • The notion of translating Greek (Byzantine) into Latin (Roman/Italian) highlights a cultural exchange: from flat, pattern-based imagery to weight-bearing, shadowed, spatially comprehensible forms.
• Economic and social dimensions of art:
  • Pietistic and devotional practices shaped by confraternities and civic sponsorship demonstrate how art functioned as social glue, religious pedagogy, and civic memory.
  • The use of precious materials (lapis lazuli, gold) signals prestige, piety, and the city’s wealth; these choices also reflect the price and scarcity of materials, influencing commissions and contracts.
• Ethical and theological implications:
  • The emphasis on Mary as intercessor, the church as mediator, and the Eucharist as the path to salvation highlights medieval theological priorities and devotional practices.
  • The Arena Chapel’s sponsorship by a banker family underscores how economic power intersected with religious reform and salvation ethics in late medieval Italy.

Connections to prior and upcoming lectures

• Building on Vasari’s terminology and interpretation of the Greek manner as a transitional stage toward naturalism and classical influence.
• Preparatory themes for Vasari’s later discussions of Giotto’s innovations and the broader shift toward Renaissance naturalism in Italian painting.
• Friday’s planned activities will flesh out the readings on Vasari, with additional image decks for group discussion and a continued focus on Chimabue and Giotto.

Quick reference: key artworks and terms to know

• Hodegitria (Virgin Hodegitria): Mary shows the way to salvation; Mary as intercessor and the Church’s mediating role.
• Maesta: Mary enthroned with Christ, surrounded by angels and saints; a central devotional type in Italy.
• Theotokos: Mary as bearer of God; a central Marian iconographic role.
• Thrown of Wisdom (Theotokos as throne of Christ, the Logos): Mary as the seat of divine wisdom.
• Predella (Praedella): lower register with life of Virgin and Christ scenes; supports the main image.
• Grisaille: grayscale painting to imitate marble relief; used to imply sculptural mass.
• Typology: linking Old Testament types with New Testament realities to reveal deeper truths.
• Arena Chapel (Scrovegni Chapel): Padua chapel commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni; three-cycle fresco program; last judgment on exterior; ultramarine ceiling.
• Lapis lazuli (ultramarine): expensive blue pigment from Afghanistan; used for heavenly skies and royal garments.
• Laudesi: confraternities that fund, pray, and promote devotion to Mary, including the maintenance of tabernacles and altarpieces.
• The Ring of the last: the Last Judgment on the exterior of the Arena Chapel; symbolic closing of the narrative cycle.

Study prompts and ideas for discussion

• How does Giotto’s treatment of Mary and Christ differ in terms of weight and three-dimensionality compared with Cimabue and Duccio?
• In what ways does the use of gold and aquamarine shape the viewer’s perception of sacredness and heaven?
• How do the predella scenes reinforce the Incarnation narrative and typological connections across the cycles?
• What do the structural and symbolic choices in the Arena Chapel reveal about late medieval ideas of salvation, justice, and atonement for usury?
• How do confraternities (Laudesi) influence the production, display, and devotional use of Marian imagery in Florence?

Post-lecture assignments and next steps

• Read the Vasari sections on Cimabue and Giotto to connect textual evaluation with the visual examples shown.
• Review the slide decks and complete the short activities designed for discussion on Friday.
• Prepare for the Moodle quiz by revisiting the Greek manner, the Maesta, and Giotto’s innovations, focusing on visual cues that signal shifts from two-dimensional to three-dimensional rendering.

Quick glossary recap (terms to memorize)

• Menaria Graeca / Menaia Greca: Greek manner in Italian art history.
• Movable pictures: panel paintings that could be moved, carried in processions.
• Hodegitriah: Virgin who shows the way; Mary as intercessor.
• Theotokos: Mary, bearer of God.
• Maesta: Mary enthroned with Christ; a prominent devotional image.
• Predella (Praedella): lower register with narrative scenes.
• Grisaille: grayscale painting technique to imitate sculpture/marble.
• Typology: reading Old Testament events as prefigurations of Christ.
• Arena Chapel / Scrovegni Chapel: Padua chapel funded by Enrico Scrovegni; three-cycle fresco program; Last Judgment on exterior; ultramarine ceiling.
• Lapis lazuli: ultramarine pigment from Afghanistan; symbol of heavenly color and wealth.