AP GOV EXAM #1 SEM #2

1. State, Sovereignty, Power, Strong State, Weak State, and Fragile or Failed State

A. Definition of the State:

• The state is the organization that maintains a monopoly on violence over a territory.

B. State Sovereignty:

• Sovereignty refers to the ability to carry out actions and policies within a territory independently of external or internal forces.

C. Need for Power:

• The state needs power in order to exercise authority over the territory and the people who inhabit it.

D. Risk of External Threats:

• If a state cannot defend its territory and population from foreign threats, such as other states, it risks rivals interfering with its authority, causing damage, taking part of its territory, or destroying it.

E. Domestic Threats:

• The state must have power to restrain internal threats, such as organized crime or rebel movements.

F. Demand for Resources:

• The state demands money from citizens in exchange for providing security and order.

G. Institutional Composition:

• The state is composed of various institutions that turn ideas into policy, including laws, regulations, property rights, health, labor, environment, and transportation.

H. State Institutions:

• It uses ministries, offices, the military, and the police to carry out responsibilities that society views as necessary.

I. Strong States:

• Strong states possess capacity, meaning the ability to carry out basic state tasks, such as:
  

  • Enforcement of laws

  • Recognition of human rights

  • Tax collection

  • Effective management of the economy, etc.

J. Weak States:

• These are states that lack the capacity to carry out basic state tasks, including:
  

  • Difficulty enforcing laws

  • Tax evasion

  • Control by rebel or criminal groups

  • Political corruption

  • Poor economic development

K. Lack of Institutionalization:

• Weak states are generally not institutionalized, lack legitimacy, and therefore lack authority.

L. Fragile or Failed States:

• Conditions can deteriorate to the point where the state structure collapses, resulting in a fragile or failed state. Examples include Haiti, South Sudan, and Somalia.

2. Regime, Democratic Regime, Non-Democratic Regime, Freedom, and Equality

A. Definition of Regime:

• Refers to the fundamental rules and norms of politics.

B. Democratic Regime:

• In this regime, the rules allow greater citizen participation in the governing process and grant individual rights and freedoms.

C. Non-Democratic Regime:

• Limits public participation in favor of those in power.

D. Relationship between Freedom and Equality:

• In both regimes, the extent of power and the relationship between freedom and equality can vary. This course examines the debate over the tension between freedom and equality and which is more important.

E. Definition of Freedom:

• Freedom is understood as an individual’s ability to act independently without fear of restrictions or punishment by the state or other groups in society.

F. Definition of Equality:

• Equality is a shared standard of material living conditions among individuals in a community.

3. Government

A. Composition of Government:

• A government is formed by the individuals who lead the state, including legislators, presidents, and prime ministers.

B. Methods of Coming to Power:

• Leaders may be elected democratically or may obtain power through non-democratic means.

C. Impact of Governments on Regimes:

• Both democratic and non-democratic governments must confront existing regimes that have evolved over time.

D. Dangers of Acting Against an Existing Regime:

• Acting against the regime can provoke resistance, rebellion, or the collapse of the government (example: Gorbachev and the dissolution of the Soviet Union).

E. Public Perception of Leaders:

• Due to the power of regimes, the public tends to view leaders as replaceable.

F. Longevity of States and Governments:

• Regimes tend to be more durable than governments.

G. Relationship between State, Regime, and Government:

• State, regime, and government together form the structure of a country.

4. Consensus

A. Political Organization by Consensus:

• Occurs when individuals unite for protection and create common rules.

B. Selection of Leadership:

• Leadership is chosen by the people, achieving security through cooperation.

C. Outcomes of Consensus:

• This tends to lead to the formation of a democratic regime.

5. Coercion

A. Political Organization by Coercion:

• Occurs when a leader unites individuals through the imposition of authority and the monopolization of power.

B. Security through Control:

• In this context, security is achieved through control.

C. Outcome of Coercion:

• This leads to the formation of an authoritarian regime.

6. Legitimacy

A. Definition of Legitimacy:

• Legitimacy refers to something or someone being recognized and accepted as correct.

B. Legitimate Institutions and Individuals:

• A legitimate institution or person is widely accepted and recognized by the public.

C. Legitimacy and Authority:

• Legitimacy grants authority and power; in its absence, states must resort to coercion to maintain control.

D. Citizenship and Obedience Example:

• In legitimate states, people obey laws even when threats of punishment are minimal. For example, citizens pay taxes because they believe in the state’s authority to demand compliance.

E. Legitimacy as Power:

• Creates power based on consensus rather than coercion; it is a crucial component of the state.

7. Types of Legitimacy

A. Traditional Legitimacy:

• Based on the idea that something or someone is valid because it has always been that way. Example: long-standing monarchies, such as Great Britain.

B. Charismatic Legitimacy:

• Based on the power of ideas and beliefs. Example: Adolf Hitler.

• It is usually not durable, as it perishes with the individual, though it can be institutionalized.

C. Rational-Legal Legitimacy:

• Based on a system of laws and procedures considered rational and neutral.

• Leaders gain legitimacy through the rules that brought them to power.

8. Federalism

A. Definition of Federalism:

• State power can be centralized or decentralized. In federalism, certain powers (taxes, laws, security) are granted to regional institutions and local legislatures.

B. Constitution and Powers:

• Powers are defined in national constitutions and cannot easily be eliminated by the central government.

C. Benefits of Federalism:

• Helps represent local interests and counterbalance the growth of central power.

D. Asymmetric Federalism:

• In some countries, such as Spain, Russia, and India, power is divided unevenly among regional institutions.

E. Unitary State:

• Political power is concentrated at the national level; local authority is limited.

F. Devolution:

• A recent trend toward decentralization to increase state legitimacy and address issues such as ethnic or religious differences.

9. Autonomy

A. Definition of Autonomy:

• The ability of the state to exercise power independently of public opinion or international actors.

B. Example of an Autonomous State:

• China, which carries out a robust infrastructure program without public consultation or international approval.

Chapter II: Society, Ethnicity, Nationality, and Citizenship

1. Society

A. Definition of Society:

• A complex human organization that includes groups of people united by shared institutions.

B. Self-Definition and Relationships:

• Societies differ in how individuals define themselves and their relationship with the government and the state.

C. Ethnic Identity:

• Refers to identifying oneself in terms of ethnicity (e.g., Germans, Irish), emphasizing relationships with others in society.

D. Institutionalization of Ethnic Attributes:

• Ethnic identity is formed through institutions that provide a shared culture (language, religion, customs).

E. Ascription:

• The process by which individuals are assigned to a particular ethnicity at birth, which remains stable throughout life.

F. Ethnic Diversity:

• Most countries are not ethnically homogeneous and may be divided into multiple ethnic groups.

G. Ethnicity as Social Identity:

• Ethnicity is a social, not political, identity. It requires recognition and distinction between groups.

H. Ethnic Conflict in Rwanda:

• Although distinctions between Hutu and Tutsi are imprecise, the conflict has led to mass deaths.

2. Nation and Nationalism

A. Definition of Nation:

• A group that desires self-government, often associated with the formation of an independent state.

B. Comparison between Ethnicity and Nationality:

• National identity unites people through shared political aspirations (self-government, sovereignty).

C. Demands for Sovereignty and Equality:

• Includes demands for greater freedom and rights (e.g., separatist movements).

D. Historical Examples of Nationalism:

• The separation of Pakistan from India (1947), Kosovo’s independence (2008), and Tibetan independence movements.

E. Relationship between Ethnicity and Nationality:

• National identity often develops from ethnic identity. Example: Quebec and its history of referendums.

F. Nationalism:

• Pride in one’s people and belief in their sovereign political destiny.

3. Citizenship

A. Definition of Citizenship:

• The relationship between an individual or group and the state; a form of political identity in contrast to ethnicity.

B. Rights and Obligations of Citizenship:

• Citizens must swear loyalty to the state and, in return, receive rights, along with obligations such as paying taxes or military service.

C. Variability of Citizenship:

• Rights and benefits vary among states, and some individuals may hold more than one citizenship.

4. Patriotism

A. Concept of Patriotism:

• Pride in the state, defending and promoting its political system; associated with symbols such as flags and national anthems.

5. Ethnic Conflict and National Conflict

A. Definition of Ethnic Conflict:

• Conflict between ethnic groups seeking specific political or economic objectives.

B. Aspirations for Power:

• Each group seeks to increase its power by controlling political institutions.

C. Recent Conflicts:

• Example: Afghanistan, where groups fight to gain greater power without seeking independence.

D. National Conflict:

• Seeks sovereignty and the formation of an independent state (example: the American Revolution).

6. Political Attitudes

A. Definition of Political Attitudes:

• Views on the necessary pace of change between freedom and equality.

B. Classification of Attitudes:

• Radical, liberal, conservative, and reactionary, often connected to the left and right.

7. Radicals

A. Definition:

• Believe in dramatic, revolutionary changes to the existing political and social order.

B. View of the Existing Order:

• Believe it must be completely eliminated to make way for a new one.

C. Violence in Politics:

• Some radicals view violence as inevitable to achieve their goals.

8. Liberals

A. Liberal Perspective:

• Seek evolutionary change rather than revolutionary transformation.

B. Gradual Change:

• Believe change takes time and that existing institutions can serve as agents of change.

9. Conservatives

A. Skepticism of Change:

• Doubt that significant change is necessary, viewing change as potentially problematic and leading to unintended consequences.

B. Legitimacy of Institutions:

• Believe existing institutions are essential for order and continuity.

10. Reactionaries

A. Opposition to Change:

• Oppose any change and instead seek a restoration of past institutions.

B. Use of Violence:

• Like radicals, may advocate violence to advance their cause.

11. Analysis of Political Attitudes

A. Attitude Map:

• Political attitudes can be viewed as a circle rather than a line, showing similarities between radicals and reactionaries.

B. Shifts in Alignment:

• Individuals may switch sides, such as fascists evolving into communists after wars.

12. Political Ideologies

A. Definition of Ideologies:

• A set of political values related to political goals concerning freedom and equality.

B. Main Ideologies:

• Liberalism, communism, social democracy, fascism, and anarchism.

13. Liberalism

A. Priority on Freedoms:

• Places high priority on individuals’ economic and political freedoms.

B. Goal of Liberalism:

• To create a state that limits its capacity to intervene in public life to ensure freedoms.

C. Liberal Democracy:

• A system of freedoms supported by competition, participation, and dissent.

14. Communism

A. Rejection of Individual Freedom:

• Argues that individual freedom will not bring general prosperity and that a minority will dominate the state.

B. Need for a Powerful State:

• To eliminate exploitation, the state must control all economic resources.

15. Social Democracy

A. Combination of Ideologies:

• Combines ideas from communism and liberalism, accepting private property while emphasizing economic equality.

B. Social Policies:

• A strong state ensures economic equality through labor protections and social benefits.

16. Fascism

A. Hostility to Freedom and Equality:

• Classifies groups of people in terms of inferiority and superiority.

B. Absence of Fascist Regimes Today:

• Although fascist regimes no longer exist, there are parties that gain popularity in elections.

17. Anarchism

A. Rejection of the State:

• Considers the state a threat to freedom and equality.

B. Beliefs about Cooperation:

• Without a state, people would cooperate freely as equals.

18. Analysis of Political Ideologies

A. Competition among Ideologies:

• Ideologies compete and can rise or fall in importance.

B. Relationship between Power and Freedom:

• Ideologies such as liberalism and anarchism favor decentralized power, while communism and fascism seek concentrated power.

19. Fundamentalism

A. Definition of Fundamentalism:

• Seeks to integrate religion with the state, establishing faith as the sovereign authority.

B. Critique of Modernity:

• Argues that secular political identities have failed and seeks a return to a golden age of faith to resolve contemporary problems.