Comprehensive History and Evolution of Mass Media and Journalism in Pakistan

Historical Foundations of Print Media

• The Oldest Mass Medium: Print media is recognized as the oldest form of mass communication. Human history indicates that posters, banners, and pictures were the earliest methods used to convey messages to groups.

• Press Establishment: In the $10^{th}$ century, the first handmade press was established. Book printing as a standardized practice began in Europe during the $15^{th}$ and $16^{th}$ centuries.

• Mass Media and Imperialism: Initially, mass media faced significant restrictions because it emerged under imperial rule. European rulers utilized the Church as the primary authority to convey messages to the population. The Church was the only platform that was influential, accessible to the people, and within the reach of the government; consequently, it is often considered the first platform of mass medium.

• Ruler Perceptions and Threats: The emergence of print media created doubts among rulers, who viewed it as a threat to their authority. They presumed that a literate population would become aware of their rights and challenge the state. Most European rulers treated the press as a form of revolt, leading to the imposition of capital punishment for those involved in mass media.

• The Case of $1663$: The last capital punishment awarded in England to a publisher occurred in $1663$. This publisher had released a book by an anonymous writer asserting that rulers are accountable to the masses for their actions and decisions. The book proposed that if a ruler does not feel accountable, the masses have the right to overthrow them.

• Growth Barriers: Print media did not reach its full growth until the $18^{th}$ century. The primary obstacle was widespread illiteracy. Most newspapers were read only by the elite class, as the state was not responsible for the education of the masses. The elite classes maintained their status through private education using arranged tutors.

Print Media in the Sub-continent and British Rule

• East India Company (EIC) Influence: The EIC launched English-language papers primarily for its employees. After the conquest of Bengal in $1757$, the company ignored local education. At that time, there were $100,000$ ($1 \times 10^5$) informal institutions run by Hindu Pandits or Muslim Ulamas.

• Localization of Papers: English papers were published in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta because EIC offices were situated in these cities, confirming that the content was intended for European employees rather than local Indians.

• Jam-e-Jahanuma ($1822$): The first Urdu paper, Jam-e-Jahanuma, emerged in $1822$. British rulers perceived this as a threat and sought to impose press laws to suppress local papers.

• The Press Act of $1823$: This act was introduced to suppress the Urdu press. It mandated that the name of the Editor, Publisher, and Owner, along with their physical address, be printed on the first page of every newspaper so the government could monitor them. This was known as the Press and Publication Ordinance (PPO). Many press owners and editors faced punishments under this ordinance before the division of India.

• Emergence of Rights: Democratic movements asserted that knowledge is a universal right. This awareness reached the sub-continent, leading people to establish their own press to fight for their rights.

• Early Style and Format: Early print media in the sub-continent was simple, mimicking the English style. There were no headlines, catch lines, or complex formatting; newspapers were written essentially in story form.

• Unity Against Brutality: The emergence of the press became an "ill omen" for the EIC as newspapers began condemning British atrocities. This created a sense of unity, as people in distant locations like Bengal and Lahore could now share common knowledge regarding the situation under English rule.

The Resistance and Reformation Movement

• Militant Journalism: Urdu papers in Lucknow and Delhi used harsh language against the EIC until $1857$. In October $1857$, after the fall of Delhi, the British took full control. A commission report to Queen Victoria blamed Indian papers for the revolt. Molvi M. Baqar, who printed Sadiq-ul-Akhbar, was awarded capital punishment.

• Colonial Status and Inferiority: In $1858$, Queen Victoria declared India a colony. The Police Act of $1861$ was introduced, treating Indians as colonial slaves, which fostered a deep sense of inferiority and suppression.

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: He initiated a reformation movement, teaching that the only way to end suppression was through modern education. He advised Muslims to avoid direct conflict with the rulers and argued to the British that the $1857$ revolt was a collective native act, not just a Muslim one. Though not a professional journalist, he used print media extensively for educational purposes.

• International Influence and World War I: After the abrogation of the Partition of Bengal, Muslims became more politically aware. During World War I, local Muslims sympathized with the Turks because of the Caliphate. The British government closely monitored the Indian press to prevent content against imperial interests.

• Famous Journalists of the Era: Notable figures who defied British laws include Maulana Zafar Ali Khan (publisher of Zimindar), Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar, and Maulana Hasrat Mohani. Maulana Zafar Ali Khan's Zimindar faced several bans but remained popular. This era of brave, defiant writing is known as "Militant Journalism."

• The Struggle for Pakistan: Quaid-e-Azam prioritized print media after the Pakistan Resolution ($1940$). He published Dawn from Delhi (later shifted to Karachi), the Urdu daily Manshoor, and the weekly Aaj-Kal. Other relevant papers included Jang (Delhi), Nawa-i-Waqat (Lahore), and Inqalab. Pakistan Times was started in Lahore in $1937$ by Mian Iftikhar under Progressive Papers Ltd.

Post-Independence Mass Communication in Pakistan

• Initial Challenges: Upon independence, the mass communication structure was unorganized. There were few functional radio stations; the Peshawar station, built in $1927$, was under the agriculture department. The press remained disheveled due to the refugee crisis, lack of infrastructure, and administration issues.

• Geographic Shifts: Delhi-based papers shifted to Karachi, while Lahore-based papers continued normal operations. The paper Imroz emerged with a reputable team including writers like Faiz Ahmed Faiz and Chiragh Hasan Hasrat.

• Technological Evolution ($1953$): Nasim Hijazi started the paper Kohistan in Rawalpindi, introducing the Offset printing method, which replaced Litho printing. Before the transition to Litho (and subsequently Offset), photojournalism was non-existent because early typing styles could not incorporate pictures.

• The $1953$ Riots: Following communal riots between Muslims and Ahmedis, a commission (Justice Munir Ahmed and Justice Kiyyani) blamed newspapers for inciting emotions.

• Free Press Threshold: Until $1957$, the media remained relatively free, with only $60$ cases registered against newspapers nationwide.

The Ayub Khan Era: Martial Law and Control

• Martial Law Dominance: General Ayub Khan took power and imposed Martial Law. The government took over Progressive Papers Ltd. because its "progressive movement" in literature was unacceptable to the regime.

• News Agency Takeover: The government seized control of independent agencies: the Associated Press of Pakistan (APP) and Pakistan Press International (PPI). International agencies were prohibited from distributing news directly to media outlets; all news had to pass through government filters, effectively abolishing press freedom.

• National Press Trust (NPT): Established to take over newspapers suffering from financial crises. By $1960$, the NPT controlled $60\%$ of renowned newspapers.

• Press Law Reforms ($1961$–$1963$): Despite revisions in $1963$, the laws remained rigid. Under the $1823$ Act, filing a declaration was a formality; under Ayub, the Deputy Commissioner gained the right to refuse the declaration, turning it into a license used to check anti-government papers.

• Financial and Resource Pressure: The government used advertisements (a primary profit source) to reward pro-government papers and punish dissenters. Since printing materials were imported, the government manipulated import licenses to restrict the circulation of anti-government publications.

• The War of $1965$ and Tashkent Agreement: During the war, media presented an exaggerated stance of victory. When the Tashkent Agreement was signed in January $1866$, the public perceived it as a humiliation. This mismatch between media propaganda and reality led to mass protests, a student's death, and eventually Ayub Khan's resignation in March $1969$.

Media Dynamics and Social Definitions

• The Role of Watchdog: Ayub Khan's failure was attributed to closing the "watchdog" channel of the media, which blinded the government to public opinion.

• Shift to Social Content: As political news was banned under Martial Law, newspapers shifted focus to social life, introducing supplements for Sports, Women, and Youth. Imroz, Mashriq, and Kohistan were pioneers in "Women's Pages" and feature writing with pictures.

• Glamorous Journalism: The rise of film pages in dailies led to the decline of dedicated film magazines.

• Television Impacts: The arrival of TV saw poets and writers moving away from newspapers toward paid TV work, leading to a decline in newspaper readership and periodical journalism.

• Objective vs. Subjective News: Official government statements are subjective, whereas news should be objective. The Editorial page is the designated space for subjective opinion. In the sub-continent, columns were originally intended as humorous interpretations of news by figures like Abdul Majeed Salik.

• Mob, Mass, and Public:

  • Mob: A spontaneous gathering resulting from an immediate problem; no planning, shared group identity, or common status.

  • Mass: People with similar likes/dislikes (e.g., $1,000,000$ people reading the same paper) by chance, not by deliberate organized effort.

  • Public: A group formed after a deliberate effort to build opinion. Public opinion is not unanimous and must be expressive and apparent.

The $1970$ Elections and the Fall of Dhaka

• The Yahya Khan Era: General Yahya Khan revived the parliamentary system and held elections in December $1970$. However, the media failed its responsibility, reporting rumors and politicians' accusations of treason instead of facts.

• The PPO and Media Mushrooming: Yahya did not enforce the PPO strictly, leading to a "mushroom growth" of papers. The NPT papers favored rightists and predicted their victory, leaving the public mentally unprepared when the Awami League (East Pakistan) and PPP (West Pakistan) actually won.

• New Party Papers: To counter the lack of coverage, Musawat (PPP), Kohistan, and Jasarat (Jamat-i-Islami) were launched. Only the paper Azad provided a realistic picture of the election outcomes.

• Communication Failures: Media failed to inform the West about the magnitude of political anger in East Pakistan. This lack of information meant the public could not pressure the government toward a dialogue or the transfer of power.

• The Conflict: After Yahya postponed the National Assembly session scheduled for March $3^{rd}$ in Dhaka, the Awami League launched a non-cooperation movement on March $7^{th}$. Media continued to claim "Everything is fine" while the military opted for action over dialogue.

• The Tragedy of Separation: The separation of East Pakistan into Bangladesh was exacerbated by:

  • Language Barrier: West Pakistan used Urdu (Arabic/Persian script, right-to-left); East Pakistan used Bengali (Sanskrit script, left-to-right). Only a small elite spoke English.

  • Geography: No land contact; the territory of India lay between the wings. PIA was the only link, but it was too expensive for common citizens.

  • National Language Conflict: Immediately after independence, Urdu was declared the sole national language despite Bengalis making up $56\%$ of the population. It took $7$ years of agitation for Bengali to be recognized.

  • Constitutional Exploitation: The $1962$ Constitution created "One Unit," giving equal representation to both wings despite East Pakistan's larger population, which was viewed as exploitation.

The Bhutto Era and International Relations ($1971$–$1977$)

• Confidence Building: After the fall of Dhaka, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto took over as President and Martial Law Administrator. Newspapers played a critical role in defending the Two-Nation Theory against Indian propaganda that it had been "buried in the Gulf of Bengal."

• The OIC Conference ($1974$): Held in Lahore, the conference revived Pakistan's image. Following the $1973$ Arab-Israeli war, OPEC members decided to stop selling oil to Israel's allies. This gave Muslim countries leverage. During this session, the International Islamic News Agency (IINA) was proposed.

• Nuclear Ambition: Following India's $1974$ nuclear test, Bhutto declared Pakistan would acquire nuclear technology. Despite Western criticism, Pakistani papers unified the public behind the need for nuclear armaments for national security.

• The $1973$ Constitution: This introduced a Bicameral System: The National Assembly (representation by population) and the Senate (equal representation). This move gave confidence to smaller federating units.

• Shimla Agreement: Bhutto signed this with India, securing the release of $93,000$ prisoners of war. Media clarified that the agreement did not bar the Kashmir issue from international forums.

• PNA Movement ($1977$): Following allegations of election rigging, the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) launched a violent movement. Most media presented the opposition's stance, marking a shift in the history of Pakistani journalism.

The Zia-ul-Haq Era: Censorship and Afghan Jihad

• The Third Martial Law: On July $5^{th}$, $1977$, General Zia ul Haq took power. He canceled the declarations of many papers, with Musawat being the first target.

• Journalistic Resistance: The PFUJ (Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists) moved against censorship. In $1983$, the MRD (Movement for the Restoration of Democracy) was launched ($59$ signatories). Nine NPT employees were terminated for signing.

• International Catalyst ($1979$): The Communist coup in Afghanistan and the Iranian Revolution changed the geopolitical landscape. The US feared Communism reaching the oil-rich Gulf States.

• Zia's Three Demands: For supporting the Afghan Jihad, Zia demanded:

  1. Arms must be of Russian origin (to mask US involvement).

  2. All aid and contact with Mujahideen must go through Pakistan.

  3. Ammunition delivery would be confirmed by Pakistan before further supply.

• The Impact of Jihad Media: Headlines fully supported the Mujahideen. However, this coverage ignored religious extremism and sectarian violence. Sectarian groups began arming themselves, and newspapers failed to provide social pressure against these extremist groups.

The Return to Democracy ($1988$–Present)

• The RPPO ($1988$): After Zia's death in the C130 crash, the caretaker government replaced the PPO with the Registration of Press and Publication Ordinance (RPPO), significantly boosting the number of newspapers and introducing evening papers.

• Nawaz Sharif and the Jang Group: In $1998$, a conflict arose when the Prime Minister demanded the dismissal of $23$ journalists. This led to a movement regarding the neutrality of journalists and the rejection of government privileges.

• Nuclear Tests ($1998$): Media supported the tests on May $28^{th}$. Urdu papers were zealously pro-nuclear, while English papers provided a more moderate analysis of the potential negative impacts.

• The Post-$9/11$ Landscape: The US blamed Osama bin Laden and the Taliban. General Musharraf affirmed support for the US. Media coverage was balanced, presenting both government views and public disapproval of US reliability.

• Hamood Ur Rehman Commission Report: Published in $2005$ ($34$ years after the fall of Dhaka) only after an Indian website leaked the contents.

Structural Components and Types of Journalism

• Newspaper Segments:

  • Advertising: The "life blood" of a newspaper. Multinational companies, often owned by Jewish businessmen, are the largest advertisers, which influences newspaper policy.

  • Editorial: The page for subjective opinion and policy.

  • News: Must be objective. Reporters work in beats and shifts ($last shift ends at 2:00 am$).

• Research and Circulation: Good papers conduct market research to address reader interests and enhance circulation.

• Pictorial Journalism: A good picture is valued as "better than one thousand words." The Vietnam War (where $58,000$ Americans died) demonstrated the power of visual media in turning public opinion.

• Investigative Reporting: Very common in the West (e.g., the Watergate scandal leading to President Nixon's resignation). It is largely absent in Pakistan, where the Feature often covers this gap.

• Classification of Periodicals:

  • Literary Magazine: Focused on poetry and short stories (e.g., Sawera, Naqsh). Declined after the $60s$ due to the rise of Digests.

  • Digest Magazine: Popular for translations and mythology (e.g., Reader's Digest). Approximately $80$–$85$ digests exist in Pakistan.

  • In-house Journal: Published by organizations for employees/clients (e.g., newsletters).

  • Research Journal: Professional journals (Medical, IT, Architecture) published quarterly by universities.

• News Agencies: Organizations that collect news and provide it to subscribers (Wire Services).

  • International: Reuters (oldest), AP, UPI, AFP. They provide $3.5 \times 10^7$ words per day globally.

  • Pakistan: APP (state-owned under Ayub) and PPI (private). PPI was originally the Pakistan Press Association.

• Difference: Newspapers have specific policies; news agencies must remain unbiased and objective to serve diverse subscribers with varying viewpoints.