Africa Since 1960: Liberation, Independence, and Contemporary Challenges

National Liberation Movement in North Africa

The Egyptian Breakthrough
- Egypt was the first breakthrough toward independence in North Africa.
- Egypt had been a protectorate of Great Britain since the year $1882$ .
- Following World War I, Egyptian nationalist activists, led by Saad Zaghlul, petitioned the British High Commissioner to terminate the British Protectorate over Egypt and Sudan.
- A popular uprising compelled London to issue a unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence on February 22, 1922.
- The 1952 Revolution and Sudan:
  - The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 overthrew the government of King Farouk.
  - Revolutionary leaders Muhammad Naguib (Egypt’s first President) and Gamal Abdel Nasser intensified demands for total British withdrawal from Egypt and Sudan.
  - President Naguib prioritized securing Sudanese independence.
  - The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium over Sudan officially ended on January 1, 1956, and Sudan became independent.
Libyan Independence
- The Kingdom of Libya achieved independence from Italy under United Nations (UN) Trusteeship (administered by the British).
- The formal date of independence was December 24, 1951.
French North Africa: Morocco and Tunisia
- Liberation movements in French colonies gained momentum in the $1950$ s, specifically following the French military defeat in Indo-China in $1954$ .
- Morocco:
  - The Moroccan National Front, led by Sultan Mohammed V, challenged French rule.
  - In $1953$ , the Riff and Atlas communities initiated an armed struggle and revolt.
  - Morocco was proclaimed independent on March 2, 1956, after a negotiated settlement.
  - Post-independence, French and Spanish Morocco were reunited.
- Tunisia:
  - Independence was won in $1956$ .
  - The movement was led by Habib Bourguiba, head of the Neo-Destour Party.
The Algerian War of Liberation
- The struggle in Algeria was protracted and exceptionally bitter due to a large population of white settlers determined to maintain French rule.
- Opposition Forces:
  - White settlers formed the "Secret Armed Organization" to prevent independence.
  - The National Liberation Front of Algeria (FLN), led by Ahmed Ben Bella, waged a guerrilla war from $1954$ to $1962$ .
- Resolution:
  - An agreement between freedom fighters and the French government led to a referendum.
  - The people voted overwhelmingly for independence.
  - Algeria was proclaimed independent on July 1, 1962.

National Liberation Movement in West Africa

British West Africa
- Consisted of the Gold Coast (Ghana), Nigeria, the Gambia, and Sierra Leone.
- Ghana (formerly Gold Coast):
  - The struggle initially began with the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC).
  - In $1949$ , Kwame Nkrumah left the UGCC to found the Convention People’s Party (CPP).
  - Ghana became independent in 1957, becoming the first sub-Saharan colony to do so.
- Nigeria:
  - Unlike Ghana, Nigerian political parties were divided along ethnic and regional lines:
    - National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC): Based in Igbo land (Eastern region).
    - Yoruba Action Group (AG): Based in Yoruba country (Western region).
    - Northern People’s Congress (NPC): Based in Fulbe-Hausa areas (Northern region).
  - Parties disagreed on the date and terms of independence until $1959$ , when they agreed on the year $1960$ .
  - Nigeria became independent in 1960.
- Other British Territories:
  - Sierra Leone became independent in 1961.
  - Gambia became independent in 1965.
French West and Equatorial Africa
- Territorial Divisions:
  - French West Africa: A federation of eight territories (Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan [Mali], French Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Upper Volta [Burkina Faso], Dahomey [Benin], and Niger).
  - French Equatorial Africa: Comprised Chad, the Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, and Gabon.
- The 1958 Referendum:
  - French President Charles De Gaulle held a referendum to offer membership in a new "French Community" or immediate independence.
  - Most territories voted "YES" to remain within the community.
  - Guinea (Conakry), under Seko Toure, voted "NO" and was proclaimed independent on October 2, 1958.
- The 1960 Independence Wave:
  - The remaining colonies gained independence in $1960$ :
    - Cameroon and Togo (UN Trusteeships).
    - Madagascar (Malagasy Republic).
    - Dahomey, Niger, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Chad, Ubangi Shari (CAR), Congo (Brazzaville), Gabon, Senegal, French Sudan, and Mauritania.
Portuguese West Africa
- Includes Guinea-Bissau and the Cape Verde Islands.
- Portugal viewed its colonies as "overseas provinces" and intended to keep them indefinitely.
- Struggles here were characterized as violent, bloody, and protracted guerrilla wars.
- Independence was not achieved until 1973 and 1974.

National Liberation Movement in East and Central Africa

British East Africa
- Uganda:
  - Attained independence in 1962 as a single entity.
  - Led by Prime Minister Milton Obote under a coalition of the Kabaka Yekka movement and the Uganda Peoples’ Congress (UPC).
- Tanganyika and Zanzibar:
  - Tanganyika (a UN Trust Territory) won independence in 1961 under the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) led by Julius Nyerere.
  - Zanzibar became independent in 1963.
  - In 1964, the two states federated to form Tanzania.
- Kenya:
  - The path was difficult due to white settlers dispossessing peasants of land.
  - The Mau Mau revolt ( $1952$ – $1955$ ) was a peasant uprising suppressed by the British.
  - Jomo Kenyatta, leader of the Kenya African Union (KAU), was imprisoned.
  - In $1959$ , restrictions were eased; KAU became KANU (Kenya African National Union).
  - KANU won the election with $67\%$ of the vote while Kenyatta was still detained.
  - Kenya gained independence in 1963; Kenyatta became the first president.
Belgian Congo
- Ruled by Belgium from $1908$ to $1960$ .
- Patrice Lumumba launched the Congo National Movement (MNC) in $1958$ .
- Independence was achieved on June 30, 1960, as the Republic of the Congo.
- Post-Independence Crisis:
  - Secessionist struggles broke out in Katanga (led by Moise Tshombe) and South Kasai.
  - President Joseph Kasavubu (of ABAKO) dismissed Prime Minister Lumumba in September $1960$ .
  - Lumumba was kidnapped and executed on January 17, 1961, by Katangan forces and Belgian Paratroopers (with US/Belgian support).
  - The Katanga secession ended in 1963 with UN assistance.
Rwanda and Burundi
- Originally part of German East Africa ( $1890$ ), then Belgian mandate territories ( $Ruanda-Urundi$ ) after WWI.
- Became independent by UN decision in 1962.
- Rwanda: Established as a republic.
- Burundi: Initially a kingdom; became a republic in November 1966.

National Liberation Movement in Southern Africa

Territorial Overview
- Dominated by Britain: Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia), Nyasaland (Malawi), Bechuanaland (Botswana), Basutoland (Lesotho), and South Africa.
- Dominated by Portugal: Angola and Mozambique.
- Namibia (South West Africa): A former German colony occupied by South Africa after WWI.
British Southern African Colonies
- Zambia: Led by Kenneth Kaunda (head of UNIP). Became independent on October 24, 1964.
- Malawi: Led by Hastings Kamuzu Banda. Became independent in 1964.
- Others: Lesotho ( $1966$ ), Botswana ( $1966$ ), Mauritius ( $1968$ ), and Seychelles ( $1976$ ).
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
- In 1965, white settlers led by Ian Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) to maintain white minority rule.
- Black Africans resorted to guerrilla warfare through two main organizations:
  - Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) led by Robert Mugabe.
  - Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) led by Joshua Nkomo.
- Majority rule was established in April 1980 with Mugabe as the first Prime Minister.
Namibia (South-West Africa)
- Administered by South Africa as a mandate territory.
- The South-West African People’s Organization (SWAPO) led a long bitter war against South African rule.
- Achieved independence in 1990.

Apartheid in South Africa

Definitions and Origins
- Pan-Africanism: The idea that peoples of African descent have common interests and should be unified. Originated in the $18^{th}$ and $19^{th}$ centuries in the New World.
- Apartheid: A policy of discrimination meaning "separate development of the races," involving white domination of the majority blacks by the minority whites.
- The African National Congress (ANC) was formed in 1912 to struggle for black rights, calling for "One man, one vote."
- In 1948, the Afrikaner National Party came to power and institutionalized Apartheid.
Apartheid Policies
- $87\%$ of all land was reserved for whites.
- Rigid segregation was imposed in schools, hospitals, buses, and recreational areas.
- Blacks were deprived of all political and human rights.
Resistance and End of Apartheid
- Passive Resistance (1952): Led by Albert Luthuli, Oliver Tambo, Nelson Mandela, and Walter Sisulu.
- Sharpeville Massacre (March 21, 1960): Police fired on unarmed demonstrators, leading to international condemnation.
- Nelson Mandela was jailed at Robben Island until $1990$ .
- In April 1994, the first democratic elections were held.
- Nelson Mandela became the first democratically elected president, serving until $1999$ .

Pan-Africanism and the OAU/AU

Early Pan-African Movement
- The Fifth Pan-African Congress (Manchester, October 1945) was the first dominated by African delegates, focusing on continental liberation.
- Union of African States: A loose union (Ghana-Guinea-Mali) formed in $1958$ and disbanded in $1963$ .
Rival Blocs of the 1960s
- Casablanca Group (1961): Included Ghana, Guinea, Egypt, Mali, Morocco, Libya, and the Algerian government-in-exile. Favored a strong political union (Nkrumah's "United States of Africa") and centralized planning.
- Monrovia Group: Included former French colonies, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. Favored a loose confederation and voluntary cooperation.
- Brazzaville Group: Moderate Francophone states that joined the Monrovia Group.
The Organization of African Unity (OAU)
- Established in May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
- Objectives:
  - Eradicate colonialism and apartheid.
  - Promote unity and solidarity.
  - Coordinate development and safeguard sovereignty.
- Institutions:
  - The Assembly of the Heads of State and Government: Supreme organ; meets annually.
  - The Council of Ministers: Prepares agendas; meets twice a year.
  - The General Secretariat: Administrative arm led by a secretary-general.
Successes and Transitions
- Success: Pivotal role in decolonization.
- Failures: Inability to bring peace and prosperity; weak influence over internal conflict and human rights abuses; unable to meet challenges of globalization.
- African Union (AU): Launched in July 2002 in Durban, South Africa, to replace the OAU.

Struggle for Economic Independence

Economic Trends
- Growth was substantial from $1965$ to $1974$ , but trended downward afterward.
- GDP growth often fails to keep pace with high population growth.
Challenges
- International Debt and Drought: Principal factors affecting development in the $1980$ s and $1990$ s.
- Terms of Trade: African raw material export prices have dropped $10$ to $20$ times compared to manufactured imports since the $1960$ s.
- IMF and World Bank: African governments turn to these for loans, but their priorities often reflect Western capitalist interests (viewing Africa as a raw material source).
Regional Economic Communities (RECs)
- Established under the Abuja Treaty (1991) and the 1980 Lagos Plan of Action.
- Major RECs:
  - COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa): formed in $1994$ , has $21$ members.
  - ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States).
  - IGAD (Intergovernmental Authority on Development).
  - SADC (Southern African Development Community).

Major Issues in Contemporary Africa

Colonial Legacies and Conflicts
- "Colonial Hangover": Strong ties to former colonial powers (e.g., France's neo-colonial grip).
- Ethnic and Border Conflicts: Colonial boundaries often split ethnic groups, leading to border disputes.
- Biafra War (Nigerian Civil War): Conflict between the southern Igbo and northern Hausa following independence.
- Rwandan Genocide (April–July 1994): The Hutu attempted to exterminate the Tutsi, resulting in approximately $800,000$ deaths.
Poverty and Sustainability
- Causes of Poverty:
  - Population Growth: Rapid growth despite education campaigns.
  - War: In $2013$ , $11$ of the world's $20$ war-related conflicts were in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Sudan, Somalia, Mali, DR Congo).
  - Climate Change: Devastating floods and drought leading to hunger crises, especially in East Africa and the Sahel.
  - Diseases: AIDS, malaria, and Ebola spread due to low medical care and education.
  - Agricultural Infrastructure: Lack of roads, wells, irrigation, and machinery.

The Egyptian Breakthrough

Egypt: First to gain independence in North Africa.
Protectorate of Great Britain since 1882.
After WWI, Egyptian nationalists, led by Saad Zaghlul, petitioned for independence.
February 22, 1922: Unilateral declaration of independence from Britain.

The 1952 Revolution and Sudan

1952: Egyptian Revolution overthrew King Farouk.
Leaders Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser wanted total British withdrawal.
Sudan gained independence on January 1, 1956.

Libyan Independence

Libya: Achieved independence from Italy on December 24, 1951 under UN Trusteeship.

French North Africa: Morocco and Tunisia

Morocco: The Moroccan National Front, led by Sultan Mohammed V, challenged French rule. Independence achieved on March 2, 1956.
Tunisia: Gained independence in 1956, led by Habib Bourguiba.

The Algerian War of Liberation

Algeria: Bitter struggle with white settlers wanting to maintain French rule.
FLN, led by Ahmed Ben Bella, fought from 1954 to 1962.
July 1, 1962: Algeria proclaimed independence.

Key Leaders and Parties

Egypt:
- Saad Zaghlul: Nationalist leader who pushed for independence.
- Muhammad Naguib: Egypt’s first President; focused on British withdrawal.
- Gamal Abdel Nasser: Revolutionary leader; influential in Arab nationalism.
Libya:
- King Idris: First monarch after independence from Italy.
Morocco:
- Sultan Mohammed V: Leader of the Moroccan National Front against French rule.
Tunisia:
- Habib Bourguiba: Leader of the independence movement.
Algeria:
- Ahmed Ben Bella: Leader of the National Liberation Front (FLN) during the war for independence.
Ghana:
- Kwame Nkrumah: Founder of the Convention People’s Party (CPP); led Ghana to independence.
Nigeria:
- Nigerian Political Parties: NCNC (Igbo), AG (Yoruba), and NPC (Hausa-Fulani) led the independence movement.
South Africa:
- African National Congress (ANC): Major party opposing apartheid.
- Nelson Mandela: Key figure in the anti-apartheid movement.

Colonizers and Territories

Great Britain:
- Colonized Egypt, Sudan, Ghana, Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Botswana, Lesotho, Eswatini.
France:
- Colonized Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and much of West Africa including Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast.
Italy:
- Colonized Libya and parts of Somalia.
Portugal:
- Colonized Angola and Mozambique.
Belgium:
- Controlled the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of Congo).
Spain:
- Colonized Western Sahara and parts of Morocco.