Mr. Eric's Biology Final Exam Review Flashcards

Exam Overview and Study Strategies

• General Scope: The Mister Eric’s Biology Final Exam covers content learned throughout the entire semester for the 2025-2026 academic year.
• Recommended Study Resources:
  • Reread personal notes and review old assignments and laboratories.
  • Review previous quizzes and chapter-specific tests.
  • Utilize "EQ: Study Sheets" provided at the start of the semester, specifically for vocabulary terms and learning objectives.
  • Consult the "DNA Fact Sheet" and "Mutations Packet Practice" documents.
• Support Services:
  • Attend AM support sessions.
  • Visit the Academic Study Center located in room E-212 to review material with a teacher.
• Effective Study Techniques:
  • Break up material into manageable chunks.
  • Pace the study schedule; start studying early and avoid "cramming" the night before the exam.

Fundamental Science Skills

• Graph Analysis: Ability to read graphs for patterns or trends.
• Data Interpretation: Interpreting specific data sets provided in the exam.
• Scientific Investigations: Analyzing the structure and outcomes of scientific investigations.
• Model Evaluation: Evaluating scientific models or experimental results and connecting them to classroom topics.

Cellular Biology: Growth, Reproduction, and Maintenance

• Cell Theory: Understanding the core principles that define cells as the fundamental unit of life.
• Microscope Usage and Terminology:
  • Lenses/Objectives: Identification and use of Scanning, Low, and High power objectives.
  • Physical Components: Eyepiece, Coarse adjustment, and Fine adjustment knobs.
  • Measurements: Understanding Micrometers ($μ m$) for cellular scale.
  • Calculations: Calculating total magnification by multiplying the eyepiece magnification by the objective lens magnification.
  • Field of View: Estimating the size of organisms using the field of view diameter.
• Cell Classification:
  • Prokaryote (Prokaryotic): Distinguishing characteristics of cells without a nucleus.
  • Eukaryote (Eukaryotic): Characteristics of complex cells containing a nucleus.
• Organelles: Structures and Functions:
  • Nucleus: The control center containing genetic material.
  • Cytoplasm: The jelly-like substance filling the cell.
  • Cell Membrane: The semi-permeable boundary of the cell.
  • Cell Wall: A rigid outer layer found in plants (but not animals).
  • Mitochondria: The site of energy production (cellular respiration).
  • Chloroplast: The site of photosynthesis in plant cells.
  • Ribosome: The site of protein synthesis.
• Cellular Transport:
  • Diffusion: Movement of particles from high to low concentration.
  • Osmosis: The specific diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane and its impact on living cells.

The Cell Cycle, Division, and Genetic Variation

• Chromosomes: Understanding the structure of chromosomes and their essential role in cell division.
• The Cell Cycle Phases:
  • Interphase: The growth phase consisting of $G_1$ (Gap 1), $S$ (Synthesis/DNA replication), and $G_2$ (Gap 2).
  • M Phase (Mitosis): Nuclear division.
  • Cytokinesis: The physical division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells.
• Stages of Mitosis (PMAT):
  1. Prophase
  2. Metaphase
  3. Anaphase
  4. Telophase
• Cancer: Caused by uncontrolled cell division and disruptions in the cell cycle.
• Meiosis and Genetic Variation:
  • Purpose: To produce gametes (haploid cells) for reproduction.
  • Phases: PMAT1 and PMAT2.
  • Crossing Over (Recombination): The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that increases genetic variation.
  • Cell Types: Distinguishing between Diploid ($2n$) and Haploid ($n$) cells.
• Karyotypes:
  • Definition: A visual representation of an individual's chromosomes.
  • Autosomes: Non-sex chromosomes (pairs 1-22 in humans).
  • Sex Chromosomes: The 23rd pair (XX for female, XY for male).
  • Analysis: Used to identify missing or extra chromosomes and determine the sex of an individual.

DNA and RNA Structure and Function

• DNA Structure (The Double Helix):
  • Nucleotide Components: A 5-Carbon Sugar (Deoxyribose), a Phosphate Group, and a Nitrogenous Base.
  • Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C).
  • Bonding: Hydrogen bonds connect base pairs; Covalent bonds connect nucleotides (sugar and phosphate backbone).
  • Base Pairing Rules: Adenine pairs with Thymine ($A-T$); Cytosine pairs with Guanine ($C-G$).
• RNA Structure:
  • Differences from DNA: Contains the sugar Ribose, is generally single-stranded, and uses Uracil (U) instead of Thymine.
  • Nucleotide Components: Nitrogen bases (A, C, G, U), Ribose sugar, and a Phosphate group.
  • RNA Base Pairing: $A-U$ and $C-G$.
• Types of RNA:
  • mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome.
  • tRNA (transfer RNA): Transports amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
  • rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Forms the physical structure of the ribosome.
• DNA Replication:
  • Process: How DNA makes a copy of itself.
  • Polymerase: The enzyme responsible for synthesizing new DNA strands.

Protein Synthesis: The Central Dogma

• The Workflow: $DNA \rightarrow RNA \rightarrow Protein$.
• Transcription:
  • Definition: Transcribing the DNA code into mRNA.
  • Location: Occurs in the Nucleus.
• Translation:
  • Definition: Converting the mRNA code into a sequence of amino acids to form a protein.
  • Location: Occurs in the Cytoplasm at the Ribosome.
• The Genetic Code:
  • Codon: A three-nucleotide sequence on mRNA that codes for an amino acid.
  • Start Codon: Specifically $AUG$, which initiates translation.
  • Anticodon: A three-nucleotide sequence on tRNA that corresponds to the mRNA codon.
  • Amino Acid: The building blocks of proteins.

Genetic Mutations

• Point Mutations (Substitutions): When one base is replaced by another.
• Frameshift Mutations: Mutations that shift the reading frame of the genetic message.
  • Insertion: The addition of one or more nucleotides.
  • Deletion: The removal of one or more nucleotides.
• Impacts: Mutations can be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral; they can drastically alter the resulting protein sequence or have no effect at all.

Principles of Genetics

• Inheritance Patterns:
  • Complete Dominance: The dominant allele completely masks the recessive allele.
  • Incomplete Dominance: A heterozygous phenotype that is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes.
  • Codominance: Both alleles are expressed equally (e.g., ABO blood groups).
• Genetics Vocabulary:
  • Gene: A segment of DNA on a chromosome that produces a trait.
  • Allele: Different versions of a gene.
  • Homozygous: Having two identical alleles (e.g., $CC$ or $cc$).
  • Heterozygous: Having two different alleles (e.g., $Cc$).
  • Phenotype: The physical expression of a trait.
  • Genotype: The genetic makeup (the letters).
• Probability and Tools:
  • Punnett Squares: Used to predict the genetic possibilities of offspring.
    • Letters on the outside represent parental gametes.
    • Letters on the inside represent possible offspring genotypes.
  • Pedigrees: Diagrams used to track the inheritance of traits through generations.
• Sex-Linkage: Traits located on the sex chromosomes (usually the X chromosome). Examples include red-green color blindness.

Evolution and Biodiversity

• Darwin’s Principles of Natural Selection:
  • Variation and Adaptation: Differences exist within populations.
  • Struggle for Existence: Competition for resources.
  • Fitness: Some individuals are better suited to survive in their environment.
  • Reproduction: Survivors pass their advantageous traits to offspring.
• Ingredients of Evolution:
  1. Variation
  2. Inheritance
  3. Selection
  4. Time (Geologic Time)
• Evidence for Evolution:
  • Molecular Evidence: Comparing Amino Acid or DNA sequences across different organisms to show common ancestry.
  • Homologous Structures: Physical features shared by species due to a common ancestor.
  • Cladograms: Diagrams showing the evolutionary relationships and common descent between species based on shared characteristics.
• Patterns of Selection:
  • Directional Selection: Favoring one extreme phenotype.
  • Disruptive Selection: Favoring both extremes over the intermediate.
  • Stabilizing Selection: Favoring the intermediate phenotype and acting against extremes.

Questions and Discussion

• Question (Blood Types): A man with type AB blood ($I^AI^B$) marries a woman with type O blood ($ii$). Their children are A, B, and O. Which child was adopted?
  • Answer: The child with type O blood is adopted. A Punnett square of $I^AI^B \times ii$ yields only $I^Ai$ (Type A) and $I^Bi$ (Type B) offspring.
• Question (Pedigree Analysis): Regarding a pedigree for Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy (black shapes indicate affected individuals):
  • Relationship: Determine how individuals A, B, and C are related based on the chart layout.
  • Genotype of A: Determine if they are carriers or affected.
  • Inheritance Type: Determine if it is sex-linked or autosomal (sex-linked often shows more affected males).
  • Dominance: Determine if the trait is recessive (can skip generations) or dominant.
• Question (Color Blindness): A female ($XX$) who is not color blind marries a male ($X^cY$) who is color blind. What are the chances for offspring?
  • Note: If the mother is homozygous dominant ($X^BX^B$), 0% of offspring will be color blind, though daughters will be carriers ($X^BX^c$). If the mother is a carrier ($X^BX^c$), there is a 50% chance for both males and females.
• Question (Evolution Case Study): Bunny fur colors (brown, black, white) in Northern Illinois with decreasing snow.
  • Prediction: White fur color will likely decrease due to a loss of camouflage (selection against), while brown or black fur may increase in frequency.
• Question (Cladogram Interpretation):
  • Closest Relative: Identify the animal branched closest to the bird.
  • Fewest Characteristics: Identify the animal that diverged first (the outgroup).
  • Branch Points: Identify specific traits (like lungs or hair) that separate groups like amphibians and primates.