Comprehensive African History Notes: From National Liberation to Regional Integration

National Liberation Movements in East and Central Africa

• British East Africa Composition:

  • The region was composed of three primary territories: Uganda, Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar), and Kenya.

• Uganda:

  • Uganda achieved its independence in $1962$.

  • The movement was led by the Kabaka Yeka and the Uganda People Congress.

  • Milton Obote served as the premier during the transition to independence.

• Tanzania:

  • Modern Tanzania resulted from the unification of two former states: Tanganyika and Zanzibar.

  • Tanganyika was led by the Tanzania African National Union (TANU) under the leadership of Julius Nyerere.

  • Tanganyika won independence in $1963$.

  • In $1964$, the two countries (Tanganyika and Zanzibar) merged to form the federation of Tanzania.

• Kenya:

  • The independence movement in Kenya was characterized by significant friction due to the influence and presence of white settlers.

  • The Mau Mau Movement ($1952$ - $1955$): An organized movement led by Kenyan peasants. The movement was eventually suppressed by colonial authorities, leading to the imprisonment of many Kenyans, including the prominent leader Jomo Kenyatta.

  • In $1959$, Jomo Kenyatta organized the Kenya Africa National Union (KANU), which replaced the previous KAU.

  • Kenya achieved independence in $1963$, and Jomo Kenyatta became the nation's president.

Belgian Congo (DRC) / Zaire

• Colonial Background:

  • The territory was a colony of Belgium from $1908$ to $1960$.

• Rise of Nationalism:

  • In $1958$, the Congo National Movement (MNC) was formed by Patrice Lumumba.

  • In $1959$, major riots broke out in Leopoldville (now known as Kinshasa), involving violent clashes between Belgian colonial rulers and the Congolese people.

  • As a result of the unrest, Belgium decided to organize a Congolese government.

• Independence ($June\text{ }30th,\text{ }1960$):

  • The MNC won the parliamentary elections.

  • Patrice Lumumba was appointed as the Prime Minister.

  • Joseph Kasavubu was elected as the President.

  • The country was renamed the Republic of Congo upon proclamation of independence.

• Post-Independence Conflict:

  • Civil war erupted shortly after independence due to secessionist struggles in the provinces of South Kasai and Katanga.

  • The Katanga secession was led by Moise Tshombe.

  • Political internal strife led President Kasavubu to remove Patrice Lumumba from power.

  • In $January\text{ }1961$, Lumumba was captured and executed.

  • The Katanga secession finally ended in $1963$ with assistance from the United Nations (UN).

  • In $1965$, Katanga was formally re-incorporated into Congo.

Rwanda and Burundi

• Both Rwanda and Burundi achieved their independence through the United Nations Trust Ship Council.

National Liberation Movements in Southern Africa

• Territories Dominated by Great Britain:

  • Southern Rhodesia (modern-day Zimbabwe)

  • Northern Rhodesia (modern-day Zambia)

  • Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi)

  • Bechuanaland (modern-day Botswana)

  • Basutoland (modern-day Lesotho)

  • South Africa (Post-World War II context)

  • South West Africa (modern-day Namibia), which was occupied by South Africa.

• Zambia (Northern Rhodesia):

  • The movement was led by the Zambia Africa National Union and its successor, the United National Independence Party (UNIP), led by Kenneth Kaunda.

  • In $1960$, UNIP organized a campaign of massive civil disobedience.

  • An election was held in $1961$, where UNIP secured $1/3$ of the white vote.

  • Independence was achieved under the leadership of Kenneth Kaunda.

• Malawi (Nyasaland):

  • Independence was won in $1964$ with Kamuzu Banda serving as president.

• Other Southern/Island Nations:

  • Mauritius won independence in $1968$.

  • Seychelles won independence in $1976$.

• Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia):

  • In $1965$, Ian Smith issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), which was opposed by Black Africans and the British government.

  • Africans transitioned to guerrilla warfare to fight for sovereignty.

  • The war was conducted by two main groups: the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), led by Robert Mugabe, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU), led by Joshua Nkomo.

  • The struggle brought an end to white minority rule.

  • A majority rule government was formed in $April\text{ }1980$. Robert Mugabe became the first Prime Minister, and the country adopted the name Zimbabwe.

• South West Africa and Spanish Guinea:

  • Namibia: Following World War II, South West Africa was a mandate ruled by South Africa. It eventually won independence through the struggle spearheaded by the South West African People Organization (SWAPO).

  • Equatorial Guinea: Formerly known as Spanish Guinea, it gained independence in $1968$.

Apartheid in South Africa

• Historical Timeline:

  • South Africa was freed from British rule in $1910$.

  • The African National Congress (ANC) was formed in $1912$ with the goal of struggling for the rights of the black population.

  • The ANC eventually crystallized their demands into the call for "one man, one vote."

• The Rise of Apartheid:

  • In $1948$, the Afrikaner Nationalist Party ascended to power and implemented the system known as "Apartheid."

  • This led to widespread demonstrations and riots in protest of the racist rule.

• Resistance and Crackdown:

  • In $1952$, the ANC led a campaign of passive resistance. Key leaders included Albert Luthuli, Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and Oliver Tambo.

  • The Sharpeville Massacre ($March\text{ }21,\text{ }1960$): Police fired upon peaceful demonstrators at Sharpeville, resulting in a massacre.

  • International response included the enactment of economic sanctions against the racist South African government.

  • The government responded by arresting opposition leaders and banning all black political organizations as illegal.

• The Transition to Democracy:

  • Nelson Mandela was imprisoned at Robben Island.

  • He was released in $1990$ after being in jail since the early $1960$s.

  • In $April\text{ }1994$, Mandela won the national election.

  • In $1999$, he stepped down, leaving the presidency for the next democratically elected leader.

Pan-Africanism and the Organization of African Unity (OAU)

• Definition of Pan-Africanism:

  • The idea that people of African descent share common interests and should be unified. The primary common interest was the black liberation struggle against white domination, exploitation, and colonization.

• The 5th Pan-African Congress (Manchester, $1945$):

  • This congress was unique because it was dominated by African delegations rather than the diaspora.

  • It focused specifically on the liberation of colonized Africa.

  • Many participants returned to Africa to lead their nations to independence.

• Early Integration Efforts:

  • Kwame Nkrumah was the "peace setter" of this era.

  • In $1958$, he formed a union between Ghana, Guinea, and Mali, though it disbanded in $1963$.

• Regional Ideological Groups:

  1. Casablanca Group ($1961$): Composed of Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Morocco, Libya, and Algeria. They advocated for a strong political union based on Nkrumah's vision of a "United States of Africa."

  2. Monrovia Group: Composed of former French colonies plus Nigeria, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. This group favored a loose federation of sovereign countries rather than a deep political union.

  3. Brazzaville Group: Consisted of Francophone states that later merged with the Monrovia group.

• Foundation of the OAU:

  • The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was established after delegates from $32$ independent African countries met in Addis Ababa between $May\text{ }22nd$ and $25th,\text{ }1963$.

• Objectives of the OAU:

  • Promote solidarity and unity among African states.

  • Safeguard the sovereignty and territorial integrity of member states.

  • Coordinate and intensify cooperation for development.

  • Promote international cooperation.

  • Eradicate remaining colonialism and apartheid from the continent.

• Principal Institutions of the OAU:

  1. The Assembly of Heads of State and Government: The supreme organ of the OAU. They meet annually to discuss various issues.

  2. The Council of Ministers: Subordinate to the General Assembly, responsible for preparing agendas.

  3. The General Secretariat: Responsible for administrative issues.

• Transition to the AU:

  • The OAU succeeded in eradicating colonialism and white minority rule.

  • However, it faced failures regarding its inability to bring peace, security, and prosperity to the continent.

  • The OAU was transformed into the African Union (AU), which was officially launched in $2002$ in Durban, South Africa.

Struggle for Economic Independence

• Economic Conditions:

  • Africa achieved substantial economic growth between $1965$ and $1974$.

  • Following this period, a downward trend emerged.

  • GDP growth has struggled to keep pace with high population growth rates.

  • The continent has faced challenges including international debt, drought, and the comparative decline in the price of raw materials.

• Establishment of Regional Economic Communities (RECs):

  • RECs were established across four regions to facilitate integration between members and the wider African Economic Communities (AEC), which was set under the Abuja Treaty ($1991$).

  • Major RECs include:

    • ECOWAS

    • COMESA

    • IGAD

    • SADC

Major Contemporary Issues in Africa

1. Lack of political stability.

2. Ethnic conflicts.

3. Civil war.

4. Climate change.

5. Population growth.

6. Disease.

7. Inadequate infrastructure.

8. Poverty.