Many Ways to Go

1. Ionizing radiation: enough energy to knock electrons from atoms forming ions, capable of causing cancer

(gamma-X-rays-UV)

2. High Quality Energy: organized & concentrated, can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)

3. Low Quality Energy: disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)

4. First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one

form to another

5. Second Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful

energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat) - entropy

6. Thermal gradient – spontaneous flow of heat from warmer to cooler bodies

7. Natural radioactive decay: unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha & beta particles

8. Half life: the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioisotope to decay

9. Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level: approximately 10

half-lives

10. Nuclear Fission: nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons

11. Nuclear Fusion: 2 isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to

form a heavier nucleus. Expensive, break even point not reached yet

12. Mass deficit – not all matter is converted into matter in a fusion reaction – some (the mass deficit) is

converted into energy. E = mc2

13. Ore: a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine

14. Organic fertilizer: slow acting & long lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed

15. Best solution to Energy crisis: conservation and increase efficiency

16. Surface mining: cheaper & can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workers

17. Humus: organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms

18. Soil Profile à O- A- E- B- C (layers or horizons)

 A layer – below the O layer; formed of weathered rock and some organic material; topsoil

 E layer – elluvial layer – mineral horizon in which the main feature is the loss of silicate clay, iron and

aluminum – above the B horizon

 B layer – receives minerals and organic matter that is leached from layers above

 C layer – unweathered material – little or no signs of soil formation

 Five major factors that influence soil formation: 1) parent material, 2) climate, 3) living organisms

(especially native vegetation), 4) topography and 5) time.

19. Leaching: removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards

20. Illuviation: deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)

21. Loam: perfect agricultural soil with portions of sand, silt, clay

22. Conservation: allows the use of resources in a responsible manner (see file# 10)

Preservation: setting aside areas & protecting them from human activities

Mitigation: Repairing/Rehabilitating a damaged ecosystem or compensation for damage, Most often by

providing a substitute or replacement area; frequently involves wetland ecosystems.

Remediation: Most often used with cleanup of chemical contaminants in a polluted area. For example –

bioremediation or phytoremediation

Reclamation: to reclaim; typically used to describe chemical or physical manipulations carried out in

severely degraded sites, such as open-pit mines or large-scale construction; See also – The Surface

Mining and Reclamation Act

Restoration: to bring back to its original conditions; active restoration seeks to reestablish a diverse,

dynamic community at sited that have been degraded.

23. Parts of the hydrologic cycle: evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration

24. Aquifer: any water bearing layer in the ground (confined or artesian and unconfined or water table)

25. Cone of depression: lowering of the water table around a pumping well

26. Salt water intrusion: near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the

aquifer

27. Subsidence – land sinks as result of over pumping the aquifer

28. ENSO: El Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific

29. During an El Nino year: trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to SA

During a Non El Nino year: Easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific,

allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the West coast of South America

30. Effects of El Nino: upwelling decreases disrupting food chains, N US has mild winters, SW US has

increased rainfall, less Atlantic Hurricanes

31. Nitrogen fixing: because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into

ammonia by bacteria (rhizobium or cyanobacteria)

32. Ammonification: nitrogen is converted into ammonia by ammonifying bacteria; may occur when

nitrogen

in organic wastes in the soil are converted to ammonia

33. Nitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO-3)

34. Assimilation: inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins -

plants assimilate nitrogen as NH4

nitrogen compounds by eating plants

35. Denitrification: bacteria convert ammonia back into N2

bacteria

36. Phosphorus does not circulate as easily as N because: it does not exist as a gas, but is released by

weathering of phosphate rocks - this is a SEDIMENTARY cycle – it is never found as a gas

37. Sustainability: the ability to meet humanities current needs without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their needs

38. Excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems by: runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of

sewage ; limiting factor in freshwater ecosystems; excess P leads to eutrophication

39. Photosynthesis: plants convert atmospheric C (CO2

) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6

energy is consumed and oxygen is released as a waste product

40. Aerobic respiration: oxygen consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex

organic compounds & convert C-containing carbohydrates back into CO2

oxygen is consumed in the process

; energy is released and

41. Anaerobic Respiration – break down of carbohydrates without oxygen – products into methane (CH4

alcohols and other organics

),

42. Largest reservoirs of C: carbonate rocks first, oceans second

43. Biotic/abiotic: living & nonliving components of an ecosystem

44. Producer/Autotroph: photosynthetic organisms; base for any food chain or web. Chemautroph –

chemosynthesis – usually carried out by sulfur bacteria in aphotic zones in the ocean (deep ocean vents

for ex.)

45. Fecal coliform/Enterococcus: : indicator of sewage contamination; found in the intestines of all warm

blooded mammals

46. Energy flow in food webs (or chains ; through trophic systems): only 10% of the usable energy is

transferred because usable energy lost as heat (2nd law) and through respiration, not all biomass is

digested & absorbed, predators expend energy to catch prey; the 10% value is an average value

H12O6) ;

+ or NO3 through their roots; animals (herbivores) assimilate organic

-

or N2O – typically accomplished by anaerobic

 GPP – gross primary productivity

 NPP – net primary productivity ( GPP – R)

 Ecological Efficiency

47. Habitat – physical location, surroundings

48. Niche – habitat plus all interactions with the biotic and abiotic components; fundamental niche, realized

niche

49. Chlorine: (goodàdisinfection of water)( badàforms trihalomethanes when organics are present in the

water) Many systems now use chloramines to treat waste water before it is discharged. Alternatives

chlorine disinfection – ozone or UV light.

to

50. Primary succession: development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life

(lava); no soil substrate.

51. Secondary succession: life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest, fire) ; disturbed areas

52. Mutualism: symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit and both participate

53. Commensalism: symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected or may

benefit

54. Parasitism: relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host

55. Competition – a type of population interaction, usually over a limited resource – may be intraspecific or

interspecific

 Niche Overlap

 Competitive Exclusion Principle

56. Biome: large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals ; Terrestrial

biomes

determining factors à temperature and precipitation

57. Carrying capacity: the number of individuals (size of the population) that can be sustained in an area

(supported by available resources in the environment)

58. R strategist: reproduce early, many small unprotected offspring, tend to be generalists, short lifespan

K strategist: reproduce late, few offspring, care for offspring, tend to be specialists (also see file #10)

59. Positive feedback: when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing

condition (EX: warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore

warmer earth)

60. Natural selection: organisms that possess favorable adaptations survive and pass those traits onto the

next generation

61. Malthus: said human population increases exponentially, while food supplies increase arithmetically.

Factors that keep the population in check include war, famine & disease

62. Doubling time: rule of 70

70 divided by the percent growth rate = the doubling time

63. Replacement level fertility: the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1

developed, 2.7 developing) ; biotic potential; total fertility rate

64. World Population (2012) is about 7 billion people

US Population (2012): ~325 million

65. Preindustrial stage: birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high

66. Transitional stage: death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast

67. Industrial stage: decline in birth rate, population growth slows

68. Postindustrial stage: low birth & death rates

69. Age structure diagrams: (broad base, rapid growth)(narrow base, negative growth)(uniform shape,

zero growth) ; Major Age Cohorts à Pre-reproductives, reproductives, post-reproductives

70. 1st & 2nd most populated countries: China & India

71. Most important thing affecting population growth: low status of women

72. Ways to decrease birth rate: family planning, contraception, economic rewards & penalties

73. Percent water on earth by type: 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater

74. Salinazation of soil: in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind

75. Ways to conserve water: (agriculture, drip/trickle irrigation)(industry ,recycling)(home, use gray

water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures), reclaimed water for agriculture, golf courses

76. Point vs non point sources: (Point, from specific location such as pipe)(Non-point, from over an area

such as runoff)

77. BOD: biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break

down organic materials

78. Eutrophication: may result in rapid algal growth or plant growth à caused by an excess of N & P

79. Hypoxia: May occur when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the

plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life; very low DO levels; Dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico

80. Anoxic – no DO

81. Water Rights

 Prior appropriation – typically seen in the western US; water rights are given to those that have

historically used the water (I can dam water that runs through my property and not let adjacent

individuals have access to those water resources)

 Riparian Rights – typically seen in the eastern US – able to use or own the water that is adjacent to you

82. Thermocline – rapid change in temperature with respect to depth

83. Halocline – rapid change in salinity with respect to depth.

84. Minamata Bay Disease: physical and mental impairments, death, caused by mercury (caused by

methyl

mercury)

85. Primary air pollutants: produced by humans & nature (CO, CO2

, PAN and NO2

, SO2, NO, hydrocarbons, particulates);

86 Secondary Air Pollutants à produced as a result of reactions that primary air pollutants undergo

(Include photochemical pollutants O3

and acids such as H2

SO4 and HNO3

.)

87. Negative feedback: when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed

condition (EX: warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the

ground - therefore cooler Earth)

88. Particulate matter (source, effect, reduction): (burning fossil fuels & diesel exhaust) (reduces visibility

& respiratory irritation) (filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy)

89. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx

90. Sulfur oxides (SOx

of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to photochemical SMOG. Equation for acid formation: NO + O2

NO2 + H2O = HNO3. Reduction: selective catalytic reduction unit, more efficient combustion processes

like FBC, lower combustion temperatures, find alternatives to fossil fuels.

): (Source: coal burning) (Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages

plants) (Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4) (Reduction: scrubbers, burn

low sulfur fuel)

91. Carbon oxides: (Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion) (Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin

reducing bloods ability to carry O, CO2

emissions & VOCs) Tropospheric ozone is BAD

emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit, increase efficiencies, find alternatives to fossil fuels)

92. Ozone: (Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2

irritant, plant damage, ) (Reduction: reduce NOx

93. Radon: radioactive gas, formed from the decay of Uranium 238, causes lung cancer . Radon decays to

Polonium, which is a solid. Po particles sit in lung tissue and are alpha emitters. This leads to lung

cancer. (Rn-222 decays to Po-218, Pb-214 eventually decays to Po 210, which is an alpha emitter

with a half life of 138 days)

94. Photochemical smog: formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO2

aldehydes) ; associated with automobile traffic

96. Greenhouse gases: (Examples: H2

O, CO2, O3, methane (CH4

), CFC’s, N2

, VOCsàO3

, PAN,

95. Acid deposition: caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface waters, soil

acidification and destruction of building materials

O) (EFFECT: they trap

contributes to global warming) (Reduction: catalytic converter,

+UV=NO+O O+O2=O3, with VOC’s) (Effects: respiratory

): Sources: transportation (exhaust) ~50%, industry - ~50% . Effects: acidification

=

outgoing infrared (heat) energy causing earth to warm. Greenhouse Effect has allowed the Earth to

remain at ~ 15.5o

C. INCREASED concentrations of greenhouse gases have resulted in warmer

temperatures – climate change. Increased CO2 has also resulted in ocean acidification.

97. Effects of global warming: rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, droughts (famine),

extinctions, environmental refuges, etc

98. Stratospheric Ozone depletion: caused by Ozone Depleting Chemicals (ODCs) - CFC’s, methyl

chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide all of which attack stratospheric ozone ; the Cl

or Br atoms “attack” the ozone molecules and cause the thinning of this layer (see class notes for

reaction mechanism). Global Agreement to decrease ODC – Montreal Protocol (1987)

99. Effects of ozone depletion: increased UV light that results in skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant

growth (inhibits photosynthesis, decline in Antarctic and Arctic phytoplankton population, impaired

immune systems

100. Love Canal, NY: chemicals buried in old canal and school & homes built over it causing birth defects &

cancer

101. Municpal solid waste is mostly: paper and most is landfilled

102. True cost / External costs: harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a products

price

103. Sanitary landfill problems and solutions: (leachate, liner with collection system) (methane gas, collect

gas and burn) (volume of garbage, compact & reduce)

104. Incineration advantages: volume of waste reduced by 90% & waste heat can be used

105. Incineration disadvantages: toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride—dioxin), scrubbers & electrostatic

precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)

106. Best way to solve waste problem: reduce the amounts of waste at the source, ie, source reduction

107. Keystone species: species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others, ex sea otter

108. Indicator species: species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged ex trout

109. Most endangered species: have a small range, require large territory or live on an island

110. In natural ecosystems, 50-90% of pest species are kept under control by: predators, diseases,

parasites

111. Major pesticide groups and examples: (chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT) (organophosphates,

malathion) (carbamates, aldicarb)

112. Pesticide pros: saves lives from insect transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for

farmers

113. Pesticide cons: genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence,

bioaccumulation, biological magnification

114. Natural pest control: better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies,

biopesticides, sex attractants

115. Electricity generated by fossil fuels, biomass or nuclear power à heat is produced which

creates steam à steam turns a turbine à the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to

electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines.

116. Cogeneration: using waste heat to make electricity; two outcomes with one energy resource

117. Hydroelectric power – potential energy of stored water is used to turn a turbine à the mechanical

energy from the turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to

homes through power lines.

118. Petroleum forms from: microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat & pressure into a

mixture of hydrocarbons (animal remains)

119. Pros of petroleum: cheap, easily transported, high quality energy

120. Cons of petroleum: reserves depleted soon, pollution during drilling, transport and refining, burning

makes CO2

121. Steps in coal formation: peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite (from plants)

122. Major parts of a nuclear reactor: core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building

123. Two most serious nuclear accidents: (Chernobyl,Ukraine 1986) (Three Mile Island, PA 1979)

124. Alternate energy sources: wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells

125. LD50: the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the in a test population within 14 days of the dose

126. Hazardous Waste (as defined by RCRA) - Mutagen, Teratogen, Carcinogen: causes hereditary

changes,

Fetus deformities, cancer

127. Endangered species: North spotted Owl (loss of old growth forest), Bald Eagle (thinning of eggs

caused by DDT), Piping Plover (nesting areas threatened by development)

128. Exotic species: gypsy moth, Asian Long Horned Beetle

129. Garret Hardin & The Tragedy of the Commons: Freedom to breed is bringing ruin to all. Global

commons such as atmosphere & oceans are used by all and owned by none. When no individual has

ownership – no one takes responsibility. Ex. Overfishing in the oceans, over pumping of the Ogallala

Aquifer

130. Volcanoes and Earthquakes occur: at plate boundaries (divergent, spreading, mid-ocean ridges)

(convergent, trenches) (transform, sliding, San Andreas)

131. Sources of mercury: burning coal in power plants (25% of atmospheric deposition), Compact

Fluorescent bulbs

132. Major source of sulfur: coal burning power plants

133. Threshold dose: the maximum dose that has no measurable effect

134. Ways to transmit energy – Conduction, convection and radiation

135. Speciation – typically a two step process – geographical isolation followed by reproductive isolation.

 Allopatric – new species evolve after geographical isolation

 Sympatric – formation of new species in the same geographical area – more seen in plant populations

136. Ecological Footprint - "the area of productive land and water ecosystems required to produce the

resources that the population consumes and assimilate the wastes that the population produces, wherever

on Earth the land and water is located."

137. Ecosystem services - the processes by which the environment produces resources that we often take for

granted such as clean water, timber, and habitat for fisheries, and pollination of native and agricultural plants.

Ecosystems provide “services” that:

 moderate weather extremes and their impacts

 disperse seeds

 mitigate drought and floods

 protect people from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays

 cycle and move nutrients

 protect stream and river channels and coastal shores from erosion

 detoxify and decompose wastes

 control agricultural pests

 maintain biodiversity

 generate and preserve soils and renew their fertility

 contribute to climate stability

 purify the air and water

 regulate disease carrying organisms

 pollinate crops and natural vegetation

These services can be divided into 4 categories:

1. Provisioning: food, raw materials, medicinal resources, fresh water

2. Regulating: local climate and air quality, carbon sequestration, moderation of extreme events, waste water

treatment, erosion prevention and maintaining soil fertility

3. Cultural: recreation, physical and mental health, tourism, aesthetic appreciation, spiritual experience

4. Habitat or supporting services: provide habitat, help maintain genetic diversity

LAWS, LAWS & MORE LAWS

MINING

1. Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act: requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land

2. Madrid Protocol: Moratorium on mineral exploration for 50 years in Antarctica

WATER

3. Safe Drinking Water Act: set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water that may have

adverse effects on human health

4. Clean Water Act: set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into

waterways..aim to make surface waters swimmable and fishable

5. Ocean Dumping Ban Act: bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge & industrial waste in the ocean

AIR

6. Clean Air Act: Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release of air pollutants

7. Kyoto Protocol: controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed

countries

8. Montreal Protocol: phase out of ozone depleting substances

9. Paris Accords

WASTE – Solid and Hazardous

10. Resource Conservation & Recovery Act: controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system

11. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act: Superfund, designed to identify

and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites

12. Nuclear Waste Policy Act: US government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mtn)

13. Food Quality Protection Act: set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be

screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects

SPECIES

14. Endangered Species Act: identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection

ahead of economic considerations

15. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species: lists species that cannot be commercially traded

as live specimens or wildlife products

16. Magnuson- Stevens Act: Management of marine fisheries

17. Lacey Act

GENERAL

18. National Environmental Policy Act: Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project

affecting federal lands can be started

19. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants: Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most

toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides / DDT can be used for malaria control) (Dirty

Dozen)