Psychology Study Notes
Psychology Study Notes
Key Concepts from Neural Impulses to Sensation and Social Cognition
Neural Impulse Transmission
Axon Structure:
The axon is a neural extension that has nodules, which are the darker portions where nerve impulses travel along.
Axon Terminal/Terminal Button:
This is the end part of the axon where the signal is sent to other cells.
Signal Transmission:
Electrical reactions move down the axon.
At the terminal button, electrical signals are converted to chemical communication through neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters cross the synapse, which is the space between cells, to communicate with the next cell.
Myelin Sheath:
This structure speeds up the transmission of neural impulses.
Degeneration of the myelin sheath, as seen in Multiple Sclerosis, leads to slowed neuron communication.
Correct Sequence of Neural Impulse Transmission:
Dendrite receives signal.
Cell body processes signal.
Axon sends signal.
Axon terminal transmits signal to synapse.
Perception & Processing
Bottom-Up Processing:
This method constructs perception by piecing together sensory data.
It follows a foundation-first approach and is also known as data-based processing.
Example: Seeing features and assembling an understanding of an object you’re looking at for the very first time.
Top-Down Processing:
This method uses previous knowledge and experience to recognize objects or events.
Example: Tasting a food for the first time is an example of bottom-up processing; recognizing it upon later tastings represents top-down processing.
Expectations have a significant influence on perception, such as how expectations regarding surgery outcomes can affect the experience of pain.
Deficiencies in Processing:
Bottom-up: Issues with sensory input can hinder performance (e.g., cataracts can severely affect shape identification).
Top-down: Problems with expectations or prior knowledge can obstruct perception.
Sensation Thresholds
Absolute Threshold:
Defined as the smallest level of stimulus that can be detected 50% of the time.
Difference Threshold (Just Noticeable Difference):
The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli that can be noticed 50% of the time.
Practical Application: Natural gas is deliberately scented to ensure its absolute threshold is low, facilitating easy detection for safety.
Example: Reading letters of increasing size correctly 50% of the time exemplifies the absolute threshold.
Social Cognition
Attribution Theory:
This theory focuses on how individuals explain behaviors.
Dispositional Attribution: Behavior is attributed to personal traits or characteristics.
Situational Attribution: Behavior is attributed to external circumstances or social context.
Fundamental Attribution Error: A tendency to overestimate dispositional (personal) causes while underestimating situational causes when evaluating others’ behavior.
Self-Serving Bias: Successes are attributed to dispositional factors (personal competence), while failures are blamed on situational factors (external circumstances).
Compliance Techniques
Foot-in-the-Door Technique:
A small request is made first; once agreed upon, the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request later increases.
Example: Agreeing to make a minor donation increases the chances of agreeing to a subsequent larger donation.
Low-Ball Technique:
Involves gaining commitment to an appealing offer, then revealing hidden costs or less favorable terms after the initial agreement is made.
Example: A consumer agrees to a price for a good or service and is later informed of additional fees that apply.