Gender

Gender Concepts and Historical Context

• The concept of gender entered common usage in the early 1970s.

  • It serves as an analytical category to differentiate between biological sex differences and their influence on behavior and competencies assigned as 'masculine' or 'feminine'.

  • The distinction aims to argue that biological differences have been exaggerated to sustain a patriarchal power structure.

  • This exaggeration creates a societal belief that women are naturally suited for roles considered 'domestic' and nurturing.

• In post-industrial societies, the relevance of physiological sex differences diminishes:

  • Technological advances (e.g. contraception, pain relief in childbirth, and childcare) reduce the perceived handicaps of childbirth and motherhood for women.

  • Women are increasingly outliving their reproductive capacities, thus lessening the impact of these roles on their overall lives.

• Ann Oakley's seminal work, Sex, Gender and Society (1972):

  • Establishes groundwork for the exploration of the construction of gender.

  • Observes that Western cultures often exaggerate gender differences and argues that the social efficiency of gender roles centers on women as housewives and mothers.

  • There is a common yet outdated belief that altering these roles would negatively impact happiness, a notion considered disreputable.

Previous Theoretical Explorations

• Historical Context:

  • The differentiation between sex and gender existed prior to the 1970s and was discussed in fields such as anthropology, psychoanalysis, and medical research.

  • Simone de Beauvoir's The Second Sex (1953):

  • Emphasizes that "One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman".

  • Highlights that gender differences are often set up in hierarchical opposition, with the masculine idealized as the norm and femininity framed as 'Other'.

  • De Beauvoir asserts that femininity is often understood as lack, illustrating that civilization is male-dominated and women are constantly perceived as outsiders.

Feminist Perspectives on Gender Constructs

• 1970s Feminist Discourse:

  • Majority of feminists accepted gender as a social construct, reflected in popular youth culture (e.g., unisex clothing).

  • Shulamith Firestone, in The Dialectic of Sex ([1970] 1979):

  • Suggests patriarchy exploits women’s biological reproductive capacity as a weakness.

  • Proposes that technological advancements could liberate women from childbirth and suggests dismantling familial structures and monogamous relationships.

  • Firestone’s views on motherhood and the mother-child bond were not widely embraced by other feminists, particularly because technology is often controlled by men.

• Cultural Feminism Perspective:

  • Some feminists question whether differences are inherently cultural or biological.

  • Many cultural feminists celebrate motherhood as evidence of women's natural tendencies toward nurturing and peace, often resisting relinquishing these roles.

• Oakley's Analysis of Gender:

  • Notes that definitions of gender easily drift towards biological interpretations due to backlash literature.

  • Describes that gender remains a pivotal aspect of second-wave feminism, while attempts to discredit it often reflect backlash against feminist success.

  • Gender and sex are frequently conflated in everyday language, as seen in application forms where 'gender' is commonly requested.*

Transformative Theoretical Insights

• Recent feminist scholarship points out the oversimplification of the sex/gender dichotomy and posits that the meanings related to biological sex differences are socially constructed and adaptable according to cultural contexts.

• Moira Gatens’ Perspective:

  • Emphasizes that distinct social valuation of male and female bodies affect consciousness, exemplified by issues like menstruation.

  • Asserts that masculinity is only valued when performed by biological males, indicating societal perceptions of male bodies as the standard.

• Judith Butler’s Theory of Gender Performativity:

  • Introduces the concept that gender is involuntarily 'performed' within dominant cultural discourses, while subversive performances (e.g., drag) can undermine these norms.

  • Butler states that identity categories arise from numerous institutions and discourses.

  • Argues that the supposed stability of binary sex does not guarantee that cultural constructs of 'men' or 'women' strictly map onto biological males and females respectively.

  • Suggests a possibility for 'gender trouble', where individuals can challenge societal norms, particularly the conception of 'compulsory heterosexuality'.

• Changes in Understanding:

  • Shifting discourse surrounding human identity questions the balance between biological and social determinants of gender identity.

  • The variability in women’s social roles since the 1960s demonstrates that definitions of femininity can be malleable, whereas the flexibility of masculinity remains uncertain.

Connections to Queer Theory and Modern Feminism

• Butler's theoretical framework supports foundational elements of queer theory and contemporary transgender studies.

• Influences of late modernist thought on feminism discuss the fluidity of gender and the exploration of hybrid identities.

Recommended Further Reading

• Ann Oakley’s Sex Gender and Society (1972) for foundational studies on gender construction.

• Shulamith Firestone’s The Dialectic of Sex ([1970] 1979) for alternative feminist perspectives on sex/gender issues.

• Theoretical critiques from Gatens (1996), Butler (1990, 1993), and Halberstam (2005) exploring postmodern challenges to traditional feminist thought on gender.

• Exploration of contemporary transgender perspectives on gender by Mairtin mac an Ghaill and Chris Haywood (2007).