Notes on Liberal Democracy and Capitalism in Popular Culture

Liberal Democracy

• Political system: a broad term for the way a polity/state is organized and governed. Definition cited from Takis S. Pappas: political systems are distinguished by how they allocate political authority in interactions among the state, organized groups, and citizens (Pappas, 2022).

• Two major types of political systems (Pappas):

  • Democracy

  • Nondemocracy

• In a democracy, leaders are chosen in adequately free and fair elections, and incumbents leave office peacefully once defeated (Pappas, 2022).

• In a nondemocracy, leaders are not chosen in elections and hold power by force/intimidation (Pappas, 2022).

• Subtypes within categories:

  • Nondemocracy: totalitarian, authoritarian, autocratic, sultanist, theocratic.

  • Democracy: liberal and illiberal democracies.

• This chapter focuses on liberal democracy because the United States is categorized as a liberal democracy within Pappas’s typology or similar typologies.

Liberal Democracy Defined

• A liberal democracy is a form of government in which representative democracy operates under the principles of liberalism (as per a common definition, e.g., Wikipedia).

• Key characteristics typically include:

  • Fair, free, and competitive elections between multiple distinct political parties.

  • Separation of powers into different branches of government.

  • Rule of law in everyday life as part of an open society.

  • Equal protection of human rights and civil liberties for all persons.

  • A constitution (formal or uncodified) that delineates powers and enshrines the social contract.

• Important unpacking of terms:

  • Representative government: decisions reflect citizens’preferences rather than just leaders’ preferences.

  • Liberalism: commitment to civil liberties (freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly), civil rights (equal protection under the law), and the rule of law.

  • Free and fair elections: real elections where voters choose among alternatives, not rigged outcomes.

  • Constitution: a formal or informal set of rules governing government activity.

• In practice, liberal democracies draw on a constitution to define government powers and citizen rights.

The United States Is a Liberal Democracy

• The United States is generally considered a liberal democracy (Our World in Data, 2024).

• Why?

  • Representation: the government is designed to reflect ordinary Americans’ preferences.

  • Civil liberties: freedom of press, speech, assembly, religion; due process rights for those accused of crimes (e.g., right to an attorney, right against self-incrimination, right to a jury trial, protection against cruel and unusual punishment).

  • Free and fair elections: leaders at federal, state, and local levels are elected.

  • Written constitution: the U.S. Constitution outlines powers and constraints of government branches and levels.

• Other liberal democracies include Australia, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom (Our World in Data, 2024).

• Clarification about the term liberal in liberal democracy:

  • Liberal in liberal democracy is not the same as the modern political spectrum’s use of liberal (on the left).

  • Liberal democracy uses “liberal” to describe a political system emphasizing civil liberties, civil rights, and the rule of law—distinct from contemporary ideological labeling (liberal vs conservative).

There Are Alternatives to Liberal Democracy

• While the U.S. and many allies are liberal democracies, alternatives exist:

  • China is widely considered nondemocratic, authoritarian (leaders not chosen by voters; civil rights restricted; rule of law subordinated to party rule).

  • India is described as an illiberal democracy, transitioning away from a traditional liberal democracy in some respects, though elections remain reasonably free and fair (Wolf, 2023).

  • Other nondemocracies include Egypt, Iran, Russia, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.

  • Countries may have mixed or non-free-market elements in their economies as well.

Free-Market Capitalism

• Economic system definition: the manner in which a culture produces and distributes its goods and services (Choudhury, n.d.).

• Free-market capitalism (as defined in the chapter): a system in which the forces of supply and demand operate with minimal government intervention, price-setting monopolies, or other nonmarket authorities. It contrasts with a regulated/controlled market where the government intervenes in supply and demand (combining definitions from Hall & Kelly, Investopedia Team).

• The United States as a free-market capitalist country (typical economist view):

  • Production of goods and services is primarily by private individuals and businesses, not the government.

  • Private property rights allow ownership of tangible and intangible assets.

  • Prices are determined by buyers and sellers, not government price-setting.

  • Individuals are free to buy, and producers are free to produce; government role is limited in determining which goods/services are allowed (Jahan & Mahmud, n.d.).

• There are alternatives to free-market capitalism:

  • Socialist economic system: government involvement in the economy, possible price controls, provision of basic goods/services (food, employment, healthcare), and limits on private control of resources.

  • Mixed economies: many countries have features of both free markets and socialism; government provides certain services and protections while markets determine most prices and production.

  • Mixed economies exist in the United States, China, and many others, with varying degrees of government involvement in pricing, healthcare, and welfare.

The United States Is a Free-Market Capitalist Country

• The U.S. is widely viewed as free-market capitalist for reasons including private production, private property, price determination by market forces, and consumer/seller freedom.

• Yet, the U.S. also has government subsidies and interventions (e.g., healthcare subsidies, farming subsidies, energy sector support), indicating a mixed system rather than a pure free-market model.

Alternatives to Free-Market Capitalism

• Other major economies include: Australia, Austria, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan, United Kingdom (illustrating diversity in economic arrangements across liberal democracies and beyond).

• Some countries lean more socialist or maintain significant government involvement in healthcare and welfare, illustrating that most nations feature mixed economies rather than pure capitalism or pure socialism.

Popular Culture and Views of Liberal Democracy

• Four general points about how popular culture relates to liberal democracy and capitalism:
  1) Popular culture often reflects attitudes and opinions about liberal democracy.
  2) Popular culture may affect attitudes and opinions about liberal democracy.
  3) Popular culture often reflects attitudes and opinions about free-market capitalism.
  4) Popular culture may affect attitudes and opinions about free-market capitalism.

• The ensuing sections address these four points in turn.

Popular Culture Reflects Attitudes and Opinions About Liberal Democracy

• Many Americans do not constantly reflect on liberal democracy, but they have vague notions of elections, civil liberties, rule of law.

• Popular culture can express or embody attitudes about liberal democracy, including critiques or support.

• Pro-vigilante popular culture demonstrates opposition to liberal democracy by portraying a system where civil liberties and due process are sidelined.

• Vigilante case study: Death Wish (1974; remade 2008) shows a vigilante who, after personal tragedy, takes the law into his own hands, undermining due process and civil liberties and resulting in a city with reduced crime but at the cost of lawful government action.

  • Plot outline: Paul Kersey’s family attacked; Kersey becomes a vigilante; crime declines; NYPD attempts to stop him and ultimately covers up his actions.

  • Message: highlights the perceived failure of liberal democracy’s justice system and presents vigilante justice as a preferable alternative to “insufficient” state protection.

• Pro-vigilante works span a wide array of media, including:

  • Movies: Death Wish, The Baker, The Batman, The Beekeeper, The Crow, The Equalizer, Monkey Man, Nobody, Rambo: Last Blood, Darkman, Dirty Harry, First Blood, The Outlaw Josey Wales, Shaft, Walking Tall.

  • TV shows: Arrow, Daredevil, Jack Ryan, Jessica Jones, The Mandalorian, The Punisher.

  • Songs: Aerosmith—“Janie’s Got a Gun”; Jason Aldean—“Try That In a Small Town.”

  • Books: Mack Bolan series; Dexter; Jack Reacher.

  • Comics: Batman, Casey Jones, Daredevil, Red Hood, Spiderman, Venom, X.

  • Video games: Max Payne, Red Dead Redemption, Watchmen (graphic novel/game cross-over).

• The common thread: these works suggest that the liberal democratic justice system does not adequately protect ordinary people in the face of crime, thus endorsing alternatives to liberal democracy.

• Why so much anti-liberal-democracy popular culture? Public opinion data shows a segment of Americans supports curtailing civil liberties to combat crime, especially post-9/11 (War on Terror).

  • Gallup (2002–2015): Question on government actions to prevent terrorism with/without violating civil liberties showed support fluctuating; in 2002, 47% supported taking all steps even if civil liberties were violated; 49% opposed. By 2015, 30% still chose the first option (GG 2024).

  • General Social Survey (GSS): 1985: 46% would allow police to tap a suspect’s telephone without a court order; 1990: 48%. About detaining overnight for questioning without a court order: 62% (1985) and 57% (1990). The GSS stopped asking these questions after 1990, but evidence suggests substantial willingness to curtail civil liberties to stop criminals (AP–NORC, 2020a; 2020b; 2015).

• Populism appears as an alternative ideology in popular culture (thin ideology): emphasizes power of ordinary people and distrust of elites, with no fixed policy prescriptions.

  • Populist figures/policies vary by country and ideology (left populists like Bernie Sanders advocate taxes on the super-rich; right populists like Donald Trump target media and experts).

  • Populism in film/music includes Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936), its populist framing of the ordinary American vs. elites, and a recurring theme in modern country music and film.

  • Examples of populist media: Head of State (2003), The Hunt (2020), The Hunger Games, and Capra’s It’s a Wonderful Life and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington as foundational populist treatments.

Not All Works Opposing Liberal Democracy Are About Vigilantes

• There are non-vigilante critiques of liberal democracy in TV, film, and music that question how well the system works, sometimes without proposing a clear alternative (e.g., House of Cards, Scandal). It is not the same as advocating a new system, but it critiques the current one.

• Examples of anti-liberal-democracy works that are not vigilante-focused:

  • TV shows: House of Cards (2013–2018), Scandal (2012–2018).

  • Films: Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014) (arguably favors elements of authoritarian governance), Thank You for Smoking (2005) (politics portrayed as self-serving), Idiocracy (2006) (skeptical about mass decision-making).

  • Music and other media also critique the political system.

• Pro-liberal democracy pop culture examples include: Law and Order and Law and Order: SVU (1990s–present) that portray the justice system as generally effective, diligent, and focused on victims; The West Wing (1999–2006) that depicts government service as noble and responsive to citizen voices; Parks and Recreation (2009–2015) highlighting local governance and public service; Hidden Figures (2016) and other space/achievement films showing government success and societal gains.

• Additional pro-liberal democracy films: Lincoln (2012), 12 Angry Men (1957), Seven Days in May (1964), Milk (2008).

• The West Wing and Parks and Rec emphasize that the system, while imperfect, can work and serve the public good; portrayals tend toward hopeful and responsive governance.

Does Popular Culture Affect Our Attitudes and Opinions About Liberal Democracy?

• Direct research on causation (pop culture affecting attitudes) is limited.

• The author’s stance: it is reasonable to believe that popular culture can influence opinions, given evidence that exposure to media messages can affect views on various topics (draws on general media/propaganda research).

• Indirect evidence: propaganda demonstrates that messaging in media can affect beliefs about political systems; Nazi propaganda is a historical example of effective propaganda shaping attitudes (Welch, 2002).

• The book suggests more research is needed, but posits that cumulative exposure to anti-democracy media could reduce support for liberal democracy, while pro-democracy media could bolster support.

• Public attitudes regarding civil liberties show a tension: while many Americans are willing to curtail civil liberties for security, others prize civil liberties and due process, indicating mixed support for liberal-democratic values across the population.

Popular Culture and Free-Market Capitalism

• The U.S. economic system is widely regarded as free-market capitalism, but in practice most economies are mixed with varying degrees of government intervention.

• Do popular culture works reflect attitudes toward capitalism and its alternatives? Yes, and they may influence opinions as well.

Popular Culture Reflects Attitudes and Opinions About Capitalism

• Public sentiment about capitalism: Gallup has tracked favorable views of capitalism vs. socialism; since 2010, about 60 ext{ extbackslash%} of respondents say they have a favorable image of capitalism (Gallup, 2024; Jones, 2021).

• Pro-capitalism works populate popular culture across media:

  • Music: rap songs celebrating wealth, entrepreneurialism, and material success (e.g., Lil Uzi Vert—“That’s a Rack”; Lil Baby—“Get Money”; Lil Wayne—“Got Money”; 50 Cent—“I Got Money”; Young Thug—“Check”). Non-rap examples include Madonna—“Material Girl”; Barret Strong/Beatles—“Money”; Marilyn Monroe—“Diamonds Are a Girl’s Best Friend.”

  • Films: The Pursuit of Happyness, The Aviator, Air, Joy showcase wealth accumulation through hard work and entrepreneurship.

  • Reality TV: The Apprentice (Donald Trump) and Shark Tank emphasize hustling, business success, and wealth creation.

  • Other media: shows about wealth creation and wealth accumulation (storage auctions, antiques) imply that wealth is attainable within the capitalist system.

• Anti-capitalism/populist and critical portrayals exist as well:

  • Films: American Psycho (2000) critiques cutthroat capitalism and suggests capitalist-driven sociopathy; The Godfather films are interpreted by some as anti-capitalist critiques (Mafia as a metaphor for capitalism); Avatar and its sequel critique extractive capitalism; Parasite highlights inequalities; Squid Game critiques the extremes of a capitalist society.

  • Songs: Pink Floyd—“Money”; Dolly Parton—“9–5”; Mumford & Sons—“Dust Bowl Dance”; Cage the Elephant—“No Rest for the Wicked.”

  • Video games: Citizen Sleeper (2022) critiques corporate control and dehumanization under capitalism; Cyberpunk 2077 (2022), Bioshock (2007), Tonight We Riot (2020), Fallout: New Vegas (2010) depict anti-capitalist or critical perspectives on corporate power and inequality.

• Ambivalence about capitalism is common in pop culture:

  • The Wolf of Wall Street (2013) presents wealth-as-fun but also warns about greed and unethical behavior.

  • Wall Street (1987) presents a mixed portrayal, with some morally questionable characters but also aspirational capitalist figures; the film’s director, Oliver Stone, is liberal, suggesting nuanced critique rather than outright anti-capitalism.

  • This ambivalence mirrors public opinion data showing both strong support and concerns about capitalism.

• Examples of pro-capitalist media that emphasize hard work and legitimate wealth creation: The Pursuit of Happyness; Joy; The Aviator; Air; and the broader theme of wealth through ingenuity and enterprise.

Do Popular Culture Works Affect Attitudes About Capitalism?

• There is less direct empirical research on culture shaping attitudes toward capitalism, but the author argues that advertising research provides indirect evidence that messages in media can influence consumer attitudes and behaviors.

• Advertising evidence as indirect support: long-standing research indicates advertising can affect how people feel about products and their likelihood of purchasing them (Breiner, Eisend & Tarrahi, 2016; Sethuraman et al., 2011).

• The author suggests that exposure to pro-capitalist content could increase support for capitalism, while exposure to anti-capitalist content could reduce support, though direct causal studies are sparse.

• Conclusion: as with liberal democracy, the impact of popular culture on attitudes toward capitalism remains an area for further empirical study.

Advertising and Indirect Evidence

• Advertising works as a mechanism that can shape attitudes toward products and brands, which in turn can shape attitudes toward the capitalist system and consumer culture more generally.

• If advertising successfully shifts attitudes toward products, it can plausibly shift attitudes toward the broader economic system that undergirds those products.

Conclusion: Liberal Democracy and Capitalism in Popular Culture

• The United States has a liberal democratic political system and a free-market capitalist economy, though both are embedded in complex, mixed realities with exceptions and hybrid models.

• Popular culture reflects a spectrum of attitudes toward liberal democracy and capitalism, ranging from strong endorsement to deep skepticism.

• Works of popular culture both reflect public sentiment and potentially influence it, though direct causal evidence is limited and requires more research.

• The chapter highlights the importance of studying popular culture as a lens into broad societal beliefs about politics and economics, and as a potential force shaping those beliefs over time.

• Key takeaways:

  • Liberal democracy is characterized by representative government, civil liberties, rule of law, free elections, and constitutional governance.

  • Free-market capitalism emphasizes private production, private property, market-determined prices, and limited government intervention, often coexisting with mixed-economy features.

  • Popular culture offers a barometer of public attitudes toward these systems and can influence perceptions through narratives about justice, order, populism, and economic success or failure.

  • Public opinion data reveal tensions in American attitudes toward civil liberties and security, aligning with the cultural discourse around liberal democracy and capitalism.

References (selected)

• Pappas, T. S. (2022). Political systems: A typology. Retrieved from https://pappaspopulism.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/7PoliticalSystemspdf.pdf

• Our World in Data. (2024). Liberal democracy index, 2023. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/liberal-democracy-index

• Gallup, Inc. (2024). Civil liberties. Gallup News. https://news.gallup.com/poll/5263/civil-liberties.aspx

• Jones, J. M. (2021). Socialism, capitalism ratings in U.S. unchanged. Gallup News. https://news.gallup.com/poll/357755/socialism-capitalism-ratings-unchanged.aspx

• Welch, D. (2002). The Third Reich: Politics and propaganda (2nd ed.). Routledge.

• Rhodes, A. (1976). Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War 2. Chelsea House Publishers.

• Norwich University. (2024). History of American Propaganda posters: American social issues through Propaganda. https://online.norwich.edu/online/about/resource-library/history-american-propaganda-posters-american-social-issues-through-propaganda

• Investopedia. (Various authors). Free market definition and impact on the economy; Capitalism vs. socialist economies. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/freemarket.asp; https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/socialism.asp

• Mansgeron, S., et al. (2023). Various economic system discussions. Investopedia, IMF, etc.

• Kennedy, M. (2021-2024). Populism definitions and examples. Vocabulary.com: Populism. https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/populism

• Additional course materials cited within the transcript (e.g., film and TV examples)