Comprehensive Study Guide: Origin and Development of Social Work

Historical Milestones in the Development of Social Work and Social Welfare

International social welfare focuses on developing resources and mechanisms to deal with the human consequences of interrelated social, political, and economic circumstances across cultural and national boundaries. The profession has developed in the context of global historical influences, many of which can be traced back to the period Before the Common Era (B.C.E.):

• B.C.E. 2500 (Egypt): The ‘Books of the Dead’ (papyrus scrolls) were placed in pyramids spelling out a king’s duties, including care for the sick, hungry, and homeless.

• B.C.E. 1750 (Babylonia): King Hammurabi issued a code of justice requiring that people help each other in times of need.

• B.C.E. 1200 (Israel): Jewish people were instructed by faith to help the poor, elderly, disadvantaged, widows, and orphans.

• B.C.E. 530 (Buddha): Siddhartha Gautama taught that love and charity for others lead to enlightenment.

• B.C.E. 500 (Greece): Philanthropy (acts of love for humanity) was introduced; citizens encouraged to donate for the public good.

• B.C.E. 300 (China): Confucius declared humans are bound by ‘Jen,’ expressed through helping others in need.

• B.C.E. 300 (India): Prince Asoka endowed hospitals and shelters for both humans and animals.

• B.C.E. 100 (Rome): The wealthy provided free or low-cost grain to all citizens.

• C.E. 30 (Christianity): Teachings emphasized the importance of giving to the less fortunate.

• 400 (India): Hospitals and facilities for shelter for the poor and disabled were established.

• 650 (Islam): Paying Zakat (a purification tax) became one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

• 1215 (England): The Magna Carta established human rights, but only for the nobility.

• 1348 (Europe): The bubonic plague killed nearly one-third of the population, causing European feudalism to break down and leaving the poor more vulnerable.

• 1601 (England): The Elizabethan Poor Law was established. It taxed communities to support the basic needs of dependent people and harshly punished the ‘able-bodied’ poor.

History of Social Work in the Americas

Social work in North America emerged from European (particularly United Kingdom and French) political and economic practices.

United States of America:

• Early Colonial Period: Poverty and dependency were viewed as unusual/temporary. Almshouses and workhouses were used for the unproductive.

• 1650: The ‘Protestant Work Ethic’ (self-discipline, frugality) justified looking down on those who were unemployed.

• 1843: New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor was established.

• 1874: The first Charity Organization Society (COS) was established, using ‘friendly visitors’ to provide advice and classify the needy as ‘deserving’ or ‘undeserving.’

• 1886: The first Settlement House was established to eliminate distance between classes; Jane Addams (1910) advocated for social change and advocacy.

• 1895: Chicago’s School of Social Economics offered the first lectures to persons working with the poor.

• 1915: Abraham Flexner issued a report declaring social work not yet a profession because it lacked a written body of knowledge.

• 1917: Mary Richmond published ‘Social Diagnosis,’ emphasizing client problems based on inner lives and familial environments.

• 1933: President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s ‘New Deal’ established major social welfare programs.

• 1964/65: President Lyndon B. Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ programs expanded medical care and education aid.

Canada:

• Post-1867: The Confederation of Canada saw initial welfare development.

• 1919: Schools of social work in US and Canada formed the first organization for standardizing education.

• 1943: The Marsh Report formalized the post-war welfare system.

• 1965-66: Implementation of the Canada Pension Plan (CPP), Canada Assistance Plan (CAP), and Medicare. CAP formally determined eligibility based on need alone; workfare was prohibited.

• Food Banks: Rose in the 1980s; by 2000, there were 698 food banks in Canada.

South America:

• Iberian Influence: Influenced by Spain and Portugal’s authoritarian bureaucracies and power elites (landowners, military, clerics).

• Hierarchy: Society focused on family and internal networks over merit, making upward mobility difficult.

• Modernization: Delayed until the 20th century due to the legacy of slavery (abolished in 1888) and lack of public education.

• Reconceptualization (mid-1960s to mid-1970s): Moved away from US/European models toward indigenous realities.

• Paulo Freire: Introduced ‘conscientization’ (awakening of consciousness) to help the poor overcome oppression.

• Argentina (1976): Military rule led to the abduction and torture of $12,000$ citizens; professionals and social workers were dismissed, jailed, or killed.

History of Social Work in Europe

European social work traces its modern roots to the Industrial Revolution and the Elizabethan Poor Laws.

The Early Christian Tradition (C.E. 33-313):

• Philanthropy: Originally the love expressed by Greek divinities for humankind.

• Roles: The third-century church had specific roles: Deacons (collecting food/money), Deaconesses (care for women/children), Subdeacons (assisting deacons), Exorcists (early mental health counselors), Fossors (gravediggers), and Parabalani (hospital attendants).

The United Kingdom Perspective:

• Elizabethan Poor Law (1601): Categorized society into: (1) Impotent poor (elderly, blind) accommodated in almshouses; (2) Able-bodied poor (forced to work); and (3) Persistent idlers (punished in houses of correction).

• Poor Law Amendment Act (1834): Divided poor into ‘deserving’ (elderly, sick, widows) and ‘undeserving’ (able-bodied unemployed). No relief was provided outside of the workhouse for the latter.

• 1945-1971: The consolidation of the welfare state tackled five problems: want, disease, ignorance, squalor, and idleness.

• 1979: The election of Margaret Thatcher shifted responsibility back to the individual, promoting the New Right agenda.

• Barclay Report (1982): Highlighted the conflict between community work approaches and professionalized casework.

Globalization in Europe:

• Kim (2007) ‘Voice Thesis’: Argues that democratic regimes are associated with sustained social insurance because leaders must respond to the electorate’s needs.

• Bismarck’s Germany: Exception where a dictatorship institutionalized welfare to quiet radical labor leaders.

History of Social Work in Asia Pacific

Development in this region is largely a phenomenon of post-colonial transmission from the Global North to the Global South.

South Asia:

• Bangladesh: Social work emerged in the 1950s due to problems of urbanization and population growth. The College of Social Welfare and Research Centre at Dhaka was founded in 1958.

• Sri Lanka: Reached its ‘National Institute of Social Development’ status by Act 41 of 1992. Social development (crude death rate $5.9$; life expectancy $74$ years) is on par with developed nations despite low per capita income.

• India: First professional school (Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work, now TISS) founded in 1936. By 2005, there were 177 schools.

South East Asia:

• Indonesia: School of Social Welfare established in 1964. There are three types of workers: voluntary, functional (civil servants), and professional.

• Singapore: Department of Social Welfare set up in 1946. National University of Singapore (NUS) started teaching social work in 1952.

• Vietnam: ‘Caritas School of Social Work’ (1947) operated for 28 years following the French model. Practice stopped in 1975 due to the Revolution; resumed in 1986 with ‘Doi Moi’ (renovation).

East Asia:

• China: Social work abolished 1952-1982 during the communist regime as a ‘bourgeois discipline.’ Reinstated in the late 1980s. By 2002, over 90 universities had programs.

• Japan: Modern social work began under the SCAP (Allied occupation). The Japanese Association of Schools of Social Work (JASSW) formed in 1955.

• South Korea: Taewha-Kwan (1923) was the first modern institution. Ewha Womans University began the program in 1947.

Pacific Region:

• Australia: New South Wales Board of Social Study & Training established in 1929 during the Great Depression. By 1975, there were 11 schools with $2,363$ students.

• New Zealand: NZ Association of Social Workers (NZASW) founded in 1964. Indigenous vs. overseas curricula is a major theme.

• Fiji: Department of Social Welfare created in 1968. Fiji rejected western models initially, favoring extended family and kinship strengths.

History of Social Work in Africa and the Middle East

Africa:

• South Africa: First diploma offered in 1924 at Transvaal University College. The 1997 ‘White Paper for Social Welfare’ addressed post-apartheid problems (HIV/AIDS, poverty, crime).

• Zimbabwe: Profession began in 1936 to address juvenile delinquency in non-African communities. School of Social Work established in 1964 by Jesuit Fathers.

• Botswana: Social work emerged through training for community development workers in 1972 at the Botswana College of Agriculture.

• Egypt: Initiated social work education in 1935 as a trendsetter in the Arabic-speaking world. Helwan University remains a major center.

Middle East:

• Turkey: ‘Social Service Academy’ established in 1961. Baskent University (2002) follows a generalist approach.

• Saudi Arabia: Welfare is heavily based on Zakat (voluntary wealth tax), paid at a flat rate of $2.5\%$. Department of Social Work at King Saud University is a leader in higher education.

• Israel: Henrietta Szold (1931) founded the Department of Social Welfare. Hebrew University opened the first school in 1958.

Social Work as a Profession

Attributes of a Profession:

• Abraham Flexner (1915): Listed 6 attributes: (1) intellectual operations with large individual responsibility; (2) Based on science; (3) Used for practical end; (4) Educationally communicable technique; (5) Culture/self-organizing; (6) Altruistic.

• Ernest Greenwood (1957): Added societal sanction, systematic body of knowledge, authority/credibility, and a professional code of ethics.

The IFSW Definition (2000): “The social work profession promotes social change, problem-solving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work.”

Specializations: Divided by methods (casework, group work), fields of practice (child welfare, medical), population groups, or size of target (micro, mezzo, macro).

Social Work Education: Retrospect and Prospects

Evolution in the US:

• Emerging in the late 19th century from social sciences and philanthropic pressure. Mary Richmond published ‘Social Diagnosis’ in 1917.

• Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) was formed in 1952. By 2006, there were 458 BSW, 181 MSW, and 69 doctoral programs in the US.

Global Standards: Developed jointly by IFSW and IASSW (2004). Key concepts include:

• Indigenisation: Respecting multiple voices and ways of knowing specific to particular cultures.

• Universalism: Finding common principles acceptable across culture and context.

• Imperialism: The trend of western world-views dominating local/indigenous perspectives.

Distance Learning (Chapter 8):

• British Open University (1969): First degree-awarding distance university.

• IGNOU (1985): Netowrk of over $1,800$ study centers in India.

• Phases: (1) Off-campus programs; (2) Distributed education (Interactive TV); (3) Computer-mediated education.

• Evaluation: Wilke & Vinton (2006) found no significant difference in grades/skill increase between online and face-to-face MSW students.

Values, Principles and Ethics

Theories of Moral Development:

• Jean Piaget: (1) Heteronomous stage (strict adherence to rules/authority); (2) Autonomous stage (critical look at rules/reciprocity).

• Lawrence Kohlberg: 6 Stages: (1) Obedience/Punishment; (2) Individualism; (3) Interpersonal Relationships; (4) Maintaining Social Order; (5) Social Contract; (6) Universal Principles.

• Carol Gilligan: Challenged Kohlberg, emphasizing the principle of ‘Care’ (helping those in need) alongside ‘Justice.’

Ethics Decision-Making Framework (Frederic Reamer):

1. Identify issues/conflicting values.

2. Identify affected parties.

3. Tentatively identify courses of action.

4. Examine reasons for/against based on codes and theory.

5. Consult colleagues/experts.

6. Make/document the decision.

7. Monitor and evaluate.

NASW Core Values: Service, Social Justice, Dignity and Worth of the Person, Importance of Human Relationships, Integrity, and Competence.

Primary Methods: Case Work, Group Work, and Community Work

Social Case Work:

• Definition: A method based on knowledge and skill designed to help individuals and families solve psychosocial, socioeconomic, and environmental problems through direct face-to-face relationships.

• Assumptions: Individual and society are interdependent; man can grow/change; every person is unique and similar to others.

• Settings: Medical, family, correctional (probation), educational (school social work), child welfare (adoption/foster care), and corporate (labor welfare).

Social Group Work:

• Definition: Helping persons enhance their social functioning through purposeful group experiences. It addresses both healthy and sick individuals.

• Dynamics: Interaction between worker and member, worker and group, and member to member.

• Media: Play, discussion, theatre, arts, dance, outings.

• Value Base: Participation, individual initiative, freedom to participate, and individualization.

Community Work:

• History: UK 19th-century efforts to repress mendicancy; US Settlement Houses.

• India: Massive rural initiative in 1952. Block-level focus.

• Perspectives: (1) Professional/Technicist (improving service delivery within existing relations); (2) Radical/Transformational (challenging roots of deprivation).

• Process: Fact-finding, surveying, analysis, planning, negotiation, organization, and project administration.

Secondary Methods: Social Action, Research, and Administration

Social Action:

• Definition (Pray, 1945): Conscious effort to influence basic social conditions and policies.

• India: Influenced by the Gandhian model of militant non-violent resistance (Satyagraha) and Jayprakash Narayan’s ‘Total Revolution.’

• Strategies: Collaboration, Competition (campaigning), and Disruption (strikes/sit-ins).

Social Work Research:

• Purpose: To describe, define, measure, and evaluate social work practice.

• Quantitative: Uses numbers, surveys, and statistical analysis to generalize findings.

• Qualitative: Uses open-ended questions and focus groups to gain depth.

• Participatory Action Research (PAR): Involves research participants in designing and conducting the study to empower them.

Social Welfare Administration:

• Definition (Kidneigh, 1950): Transforming social policy into social services.

• Rational Framework: Asking ‘Why’ (rationale), ‘What’ (service type), and ‘How’ (delivery machinery).

• Principles: Administration is dynamic; uses human/material resources; achieved through coordination.

Generalist Practice and Theoretical Foundations

General Systems Theory (GST):

• Introduced in 1940; applied to social work in the 1970s.

• Concepts: Permeability (boundaries), Input/Output feedback loops, Entropy (tendency to use own energy), and Homeostasis (steady state).

• Core Assumption: The whole system is greater than the sum of its parts.

Ecological Systems Theory (The Life Model):

• Germain and Gitterman (1980). Focuses on ‘Person-in-Environment’ fit.

• Stress: Occurs due to life-stage transitions, environmental unresponsive organizations, or interpersonal pressure.

• Helping Process: Facilitator, teacher, or enabler roles aimed at strengthening adaptive skills.

The Generalist Perspective: Demands that the social worker assess the situation and decide which system (individual, family, community) is the appropriate focus of attention. They must be trained in all methods and switch roles (Advocate, Broker, Mediator, Researcher, Public Speaker) as needed. In India, this generic foundation is taught in the first year to reconcile the country's massive linguistic, caste, and cultural diversity.