Forensic Psychology Exam 1

Chapter 1: Psychology & Law

• Common jobs/roles of forensic psychologists in the legal system: Forensic psychologists can serve as advisors/trial consultants, assist with jury selection, prepare witnesses, conduct evaluation research, and advocate for changes in the legal system based on research [1, 2].

• Pathways for influencing the legal system: Forensic psychology uses psychological knowledge or research methods to advise, evaluate, or reform the legal system [1]. This can be achieved through expert testimony, cross-disciplinary training, amicus curiae briefs, dissemination of research findings, and influencing legislature and public policy [3, 4].

Chapter 2: Lie Detection

• Liar's stereotype: About 70% of people surveyed across 63 countries believed that liars avoid eye contact, squirm, fidget, touch themselves more, and stutter [5, 6].

• Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias, the tendency to seek information that confirms pre-existing beliefs, is common in lie detection [5].

• Polygraph: This controversial technique is based on the theory that lying causes physiological changes [7].

• Relevant-Irrelevant Test (RIT): This involves asking non-arousing irrelevant questions, arousing irrelevant questions, and arousing relevant questions, but it has a high rate of false positives [8].

• Control/Comparison Question Test (CQT): This is the most common approach and uses uncomfortable control questions not directly related to the crime [8].

• Positive-Control Test (PCT): The relevant question is asked twice; the person is told to tell the truth once and lie once [9].

• Strengths and weaknesses of the polygraph:

• Weaknesses: Polygraphs can be affected by the emotional reactivity of the person being tested, lack standardization, be subject to countermeasures, and raise ethical concerns due to doubts about their validity [9]. Research indicates the scientific basis of the CQT is weak, has low quality research, unfounded accuracy claims, and unknown error rates [10].

• Strengths: Under carefully controlled conditions, polygraphers appear to catch nearly three-quarters of deceptive suspects [11].

• Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT): This method uses polygraph equipment but does not attempt to detect lies. Instead, it infers guilt if a person recognizes crime information that an innocent person would not know, resulting in elevated physiological arousal [12, 13].

• Hits and misses in forensic testing: Lab studies using the CQT method have shown approximately 77% accuracy in identifying guilty individuals and 70% accuracy in identifying innocent individuals [10]. However, real polygraph tests are not controlled situations, making it difficult to determine true or false positives [14].

• Juror response to polygraph evidence: Jurors generally find polygraph results persuasive and can change the outcome of a trial [15]. However, experts are more skeptical than the general public [15]. Mock jurors see polygraph results as less trustworthy than DNA, fingerprints, eyewitness testimony, and handwriting analysis [12].

• Physiological measures of lying:

• fMRI: Detects "where" lying occurs in the brain [16]. When people lie, the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe may be more active [17]. Limitations include being non-portable, expensive, requiring patient motionless behavior, and having a slow readout [17, 18].

• EEG: Detects "when" lying occurs and detects any change in brain waves when questions are asked [16, 17].

• Ekman research: Paul Ekman developed a classification for human facial expressions to distinguish between true and false emotional expressions [19].

• Thermal imaging: Tracks subtle heat changes in the skin near the eyes [18].

Chapter 3: Interrogations & Confessions

• Difference between interrogation and interview: An interrogation aims to elicit a confession or evidence leading to a conviction, while a police interview seeks to reveal the truth in as much detail as possible [20].

• Why police prefer confessions: Confessions save time, avoid trials, and almost guarantee convictions [21]. Research shows that mock jurors often do not discount confessions, even if false [21].

• Fundamental attribution error: This explains the tendency to attribute behavior to internal characteristics rather than external factors [21].

• Miranda rights: These include the right to remain silent and request an attorney [22]. Only a small percentage of suspects choose to exercise these rights [22].

• Reid technique: A nine-step technique based on four influence strategies: loss of control, social isolation, certainty of guilt, and exculpatory scenarios [23].

• Wrongful convictions due to false confessions: The existence of a confession makes it more likely that a jury will vote guilty [24].

• Reasons people give false confessions: These include confusion due to drugs or alcohol, craving attention, mental illness, learning disabilities, cultural differences, suggestibility, and the desire to escape the interrogation room [25-27].

• Four types of false confessions:

• Instrumental-Coerced: Confessing to stop interrogation and get leniency [28].

• Instrumental-Voluntary: Confessing to achieve a goal like fame or protecting others [28].

• Authentic-Coerced: Suspect becomes convinced they committed the crime due to intense interrogation [28].

• Authentic-Voluntary: Confessing due to mental illness or delusions [28].

• PACE Act: This act in England and Wales makes it illegal to lie during interrogations, requires a witness to be present, mandates audio recording, and prohibits intimidation [29].

• PEACE: This interrogation method uses open-ended questions and focuses on what happens before and after the interview, emphasizing engagement with the suspect [29].

• Video recording:

• Helps: Creates a permanent record and improves interrogation methods [30, 31].

• Doesn't help: Can be manipulated by partially recording the interrogation, recording only the admission, showing only segments at trial, or manipulating the camera angle [31].

• Solutions for helping decrease false confessions: Recommended solutions include time limits on interrogations, having an adult witness present for vulnerable suspects, and expert testimony on false confessions [32].

• Cognitive Interview (CI) technique: This elicits more statements from witnesses [33].

• First responders: First responders are the first to arrive at the scene of an emergency [34].

• Stress: Stress is anything that produces demands to adjust behavior and typically involves mental, physical, or emotional strain and reactions [35].

• Five types of stress: Short-term (acute), long-term (chronic), personal, occupational, and organizational [36, 37].

• PTSD and first responders: Forensic psychologists can help first responders deal with stress or PTSD through interventions like Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD), Psychological First Aid (PFA), and Fitness for Duty evaluations (FFDE) [37, 38].

Chapter 4: Forensic Identification

• Forensic identification and trace evidence: Forensic identification links physical evidence to a suspect and usually involves comparison between two samples [39]. Trace evidence refers to fragments of physical evidence like fingerprints, hair, and skin cells [39].

• Different types of forensic identification: Include anthropometry, biometrics, iris patterns, facial structure, voiceprints, signatures, and gait sequences [40].

• DNA evidence: DNA identification is a reliable and valid method with a solid scientific foundation [41]. It's considered the most objective and strongest type of forensic evidence, though it has some limitations [41].

• Source attribution:

• Inclusion: Substantially similar match/profiles suggesting samples could have originated from the same source [42].

• Individuation: Match excludes all other possibilities, indicating a detailed and perfect match that could only have come from the suspect [42].

• Exclusion: Matches/profiles are substantially inconsistent or different, indicating they came from different sources/people, making further analysis unnecessary [42].

• Inconclusive: Evidence is incomplete or contaminated, making it impossible to be sure due to degradation or contamination, possibly requiring further analysis [42].

• Hits, misses, false alarms, correct rejections:

• Hits: Correct matches of physical trace evidence with their owner [43].

• Misses: Failures to match trace evidence with the owner [43].

• False alarms: Incorrect matches of trace evidence and owner [43].

• Correct rejections: Correct mismatches between trace evidence and owner [43].

• Reliability vs. validity: Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure, while validity refers to the accuracy of a measure [44].

• Fingerprint evidence:

• Latent fingerprints: Prints found at the scene of a crime that are not readily visible [45].

• Patent fingerprints: Visible images of a person's fingertip left on a surface due to residue on the finger [46].

• Forensic entomology: The use of insect biology to help solve a crime [47]. Blowflies are commonly associated with corpses and can help determine the time of death [48].

• Pathology:

• Body temperature: Can help determine time of death, considering room temperature [49].

• Livor mortis: Red discoloration of the lowest parts of the body due to cessation of circulation and settling of blood [50].

• Rigor mortis: Stiffening of skeletal muscles, starting within 2 hours after death and progressing through the body [50, 51].

• Putrefaction: The last stage of death, where the body decomposes [51].

• Bullet striations and bullet matching: Analysis of scratch marks made on the bullet by the ridges left over from the firing of the gun, assume the bullets fired from the gun were all identical [52].

• Bite mark analysis and forensic odontology: Forensic odontologists identify teeth and teeth markings, requiring a skilled eye and knowledge of dental patterns, anatomy, and development [53].

• Framing effect: A cognitive bias in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented (e.g., as a loss or as a gain) [54].

• Jurors and trace evidence: Jurors have difficulties interpreting probability/statistical statements and have limited understanding of the scientific foundation of forensic identification [55].

Chapter 5 in the provided source material focuses on criminal profiling and psychological autopsies. Here's a breakdown of the key concepts:

1. Key Definitions [1]:

• Serial Killer: A person who murders three or more people over time, with a cooling-off period between killings [1]. Some definitions use two or four people murdered [1].

• Spree Killer: A person(s) who commits two or more murders in a short time without a break in between [1]. This typically occurs within 30 days [1].

• Mass Murderer: A person who kills multiple victims in one incident with no cooling-off period [1].

2. Criminal Profiling [2-4]:

• Criminal profiling is described as an "educated attempt to provide specific information about a certain type of suspect" [3]. It can also be described as a biographical sketch of behavioral patterns, trends, and tendencies [3].

• The basic premise is that the way a person thinks directs their behavior [4]. However, it's important to remember that profiling cannot provide a specific identity [4].

• Profilers draw inferences about a criminal’s behavior, motivation, and demographic characteristics based on crime scenes and other evidence [4].

• Profilers try to uncover "hidden" information [4].

• Good profilers have an eye for patterns, the ability to synthesize disparate information, leadership skills, effective communication skills, knowledge about technology and science related to crime detection, and an awareness of their own limitations [5, 6].

3. What is a Criminal Profile [5]:

• Some profilers emphasize the personality and motivations of the offender, such as how they committed the crime or how they treated the victims [4].

• Physical characteristics, such as age, gender, race, height, and weight, are also important [5].

• Other demographic information, such as occupation and education, are also used [5].

4. Modus Operandi (M.O.) vs. Signature [7, 8]:

• Modus Operandi: The standard or typical way of committing a crime [7]. It can change and evolve over time and tells very little about the offender’s personality [7].

• Signature: A type of ritualistic behavior that is unique to a particular offender and includes personal aspects of the criminal act [8]. It’s not needed to get away with the crime and is often a reflection of a need to express violent fantasies [8]. Signatures can be helpful in identifying the offender’s personality and case linkage if several crimes have the same signature [8].

5. Research on Profiling [9-12]:

• Basic assumptions of profiling have not been validated [9].

• There can be a failure to consider the "power of the situation" to influence behavior [10].

• Profiles can be ambiguous and general speculations and sometimes rely on "gut feelings," intuition, and hunches [10].

• Profiles can result in tunnel vision, where investigators only look for people fitting the profile, so real suspects might get away [10].

• Profiles are sometimes based on stereotypes [10].

• A study done in 1994 in England found that profiles helped identify a perpetrator in only 2.7% of the cases [10].

6. Barnum Effect [13]:

• The Barnum Effect is when people accept ambiguous information and descriptions as characteristic of themselves [13]. Profiles can be very ambiguous [13].

7. MSKs vs. FSKs (Male Serial Killers vs. Female Serial Killers) [14-17]:

• No characteristic list describes every serial killer; female killers do not tend to fit the general pattern of male killers [15].

• Female killers:

• Seek out powerless victims [15].

• Are more likely to include family members as victims [15].

• Are motivated by monetary gain [15].

• Are less likely to engage in stalking behavior than MSKs [15].

• Typical FSK: White, in 20s or 30s, probably been married, middle class, Christian, normal appearance, holds stereotypically feminine job, past sexual or physical abuse, likely have a mental illness, and murders for profit, sometimes for power [16, 17].

8. Characteristics of Serial Killers [17, 18]:

• Organized Killers: careful selection of victim, plan attack, average IQ, have patience and self-control, use more elaborate rituals, often stalk victim [17].

• Disorganized Killers: impulsive, below average IQ, use any weapon, leave weapons at scene, may use dead body for sexual purposes [18].

• Serial killers may often suffer from psychological disorders like psychopathy or antisocial personality disorder [19].

9. Types of Killers [18]:

• Visionary: psychotic, hear voices, see visions and follow orders to kill [18].

• Mission Oriented: kill people they believe are evil or unworthy or get rid of a sick/ill person [18].

• Hedonistic: kill others for thrills, profit/money, or pleasure [18].

• Power Oriented: get satisfaction from capturing and controlling the victim before killing them, play “the hero” nurse [18].

10. Geographic Profiling [20]:

• Geographical profiling is also known as criminal spatial mapping [20].

• Criminals often stay in and are likely to be caught in a geographical comfort zone [20].

• Statistical techniques are used to uncover patterns in movement and environment [20].

• As the number of crimes increases, so does the usefulness of the technique to determine "hot spots" for certain crimes [20].

• Anchor point: where attack was launched [21].

• Buffer zone: area near the criminal’s home because it is less likely s/he will commit crimes near his/her home [21].

• Distance decay: the probability of an attack decreases as the distance from past crime locations increase [21].

11. Offender Styles [22]:

• Hunter: searches for a specific victim in home territory [22].

• Poacher: travels away from home for hunting [22].

• Troller: opportunistic encounters while engaged in other activities [22].

• Trapper: creates a situation to draw a victim to him [23].

12. Psychological Autopsies [21, 24, 25]:

• Forensic Psychologists are also increasingly involved in "psychological autopsies" and work with medical examiners/coroners to resolve an ambiguous cause of death [21].

• They attempt to "dissect and examine" the psychological state of an individual before they died (like trying to figure out if a person committed suicide or accidental death) [21].

• They are based on several sources of information (e.g., letters, e-mails, records, interviews) [24].

• Results are ambiguous and uncertain [24].

• Used for equivocal deaths–not clear why death occurred–was it an accident or not [25]?

• Answers 3 distinct questions: Why did the individual do it? How and when did the individual die (why at that particular time)? What might be the most probable mode of death (how the death occurred) [24]?

• Use checklists and often come up with 4 conclusions: NASH [25]

• N: Natural [25]

• A: Accidental [25]

• S: Suicide [25]

• H: Homicide [25]