AP Comparative Government

Mexico

Indigenous Populations

• Maya

• Olmec

• Toltec

• Aztec

Colonial History

• Conquered by Spain

• New political/social/economic hierarchy established

• Spanish language and Roman Catholicism became prevalent

18th and 19th Centuries

• Attempts at reform (“La Reforma”)

• War against French intervention aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy

• “Restored republic” – period after victory against France and before Porfirio Diaz’s “Dictatorship”

Cleavages

• Definition: Political, economic, or social divisions within a state that influence political/social behavior (e.g., voting)

• Examples in Mexico:

  • Regional cleavage: North is industrialized compared to the indigenous south, impacting economic conditions; wealthier north vs. poorer south.

  • Ethnic cleavage: Divisions between whites, indigenous, and mestizos, where mestizos and whites typically have better living standards than the indigenous.

  • Urban vs. Rural cleavage: Differences in conditions and service access; urban areas tend to be more developed and wealthier compared to rural areas that often face poverty.

• Common cleavage absent in Mexico: Religion is typically a cleavage in other states, but Mexico is predominantly Catholic.

Mexican Revolution (1910 – 1920)

• Porfirio Diaz: Military dictator (1876-1911); overthrew elected president in coup d’état (1876)

• Porfiriato: Policies of “order and progress” including modernization and suppression of civil liberties.

• By 1910, widespread anger at Diaz due to failed land reforms and political corruption led to revolutionary activities.

• Post-Diaz: Revolutionary leaders could not unite on reforms, leading to civil strife until Alvaro Obregon was elected president in 1920.

Legacy:

• 1917 Constitution, establishing:

  • Constitutional presidential republic

  • Federal distribution of power

  • Separation of powers among 3 branches

  • Bicameral legislature (Senate, Chamber of Deputies)

  • Civil liberties, right to work, free education, commitment to land reform, workers’ rights.

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

• Established in 1929 (as National Revolutionary Party), later becoming PRI in 1946.

• Aimed for peace among revolutionaries and took control of Mexican politics (1929-2000).

• “El Dedazo”: Tradition of presidents selecting successors.

Government Structure and Processes

• Federalism

  • Advantages:

    • Power sharing protects against tyranny

    • Addresses local needs and diversity

    • Greater citizen participation opportunities

  • Disadvantages:

    • Power conflicts between governments

    • Inequalities between states

    • Inefficiency and increased costs.

• Separation of Powers

  • All 3 branches are independent, no overlap in officials, promoting democracy.

• Representative Government

  • Citizens elect representatives at all government levels.

Presidency Basics:

• Elected by plurality vote, serves 6-year term (sexenio), no re-election.

• Powers include law execution, appointments, foreign policy, national security, and granting pardons.

• Historically controlled politics (“imperial presidency”).

Key Terms and Concepts

• Cleavage: Political, economic, or social division within a state.

• Bureaucracy: Management system operated by many officials following rules; can lead to inefficiencies.

• First Past the Post (FPTP): A voting system where the candidate with the most votes in a district wins, irrespective of majority.

• Proportional Representation (PR): Electoral system where parties gain seats in proportion to votes received.

• PEMEX: State-owned petroleum corporation managed by the Mexican government; nationalized in the 1930s and privatized in the 2010s.

• Tariff: Tax imposed on foreign goods.

• Maquiladoras: Factories in Mexico for processing imported components for export, providing employment and contributing to trade.

• Export: Sending goods or services to another country for sale.

• Import: Bringing goods or services into a country from abroad for sale.

• Tlatelolco Massacre: 1968 military attack on unarmed civilians, resulting in numerous deaths, part of Mexican Dirty War.

• Zapatista Uprising: Indigenous-led protest on January 1, 1994, against NAFTA, fighting for indigenous rights and land reform.

Politics

• Mexico’s Cleavages

  • Gender

  • Economic status/class

  • Rural - Urban - Suburban

  • Geographic location

  • Age

Recent Electoral Changes

• PRI is no longer dominant

• Dedazo tradition is over

• Quotas require political parties to have a certain amount of female candidates

• In 2018 elections, women won half the seats in congress and half in state legislatures. Mayor of Mexico City is also a woman.

• In 2024, both leading candidates were women.

Political Parties

• Morena (Movimiento de Regeneración Nacional) - most popular party now

  • Supports ethnic, religious, cultural, and sexual diversity; respect for human rights; environmental care (all in charter)

  • AGAINST “neoliberalism” (free market, low tariffs, limited government intervention, privatization of industries, foreign investment, de-regulation of banks)

  • Pro-labor -> support unions and workers

  • Opposed privatization of PEMEX

  • Progressive agenda -> pro LGBTQ, pro legalization of marijuana, indigenous rights

  • Change “war on drugs” strategy -> less US-Mexico security cooperation, more Latin American cooperation

  • Decrease wage gaps, rather than increase taxes on the wealthy

  • “Founded” by AMLO

  • “Left wing populist”

• PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional)

  • Led dominant party system from 1929 to 2000

  • Used corporatism (state-sanctioned groups control policy-making in labor, business, and agricultural sectors), co-option (control opposition by offering “seat at the table” for policy-making, but not actually taking their input), election fraud, and political repression = ALL NON-DEMOCRATIC

  • Political beliefs varied widely, attempting to maintain support

  • Nationalized industry then privatized, high tariffs then “free-trade” (NAFTA), shifting land policies

  • PRI won presidency in 2012 but faced corruption during the term, leading to poor performance in 2018 elections.

• PAN (Partido Acción Nacional)

  • Conservative party

  • Favors free enterprise, small government, and privatization

  • Member of Christian Democrat Organization of America

  • Opposes contraceptives and same-sex marriage

  • Strong in 2000s and early 2010s

• PRD (Partido de la Revolución Democrática)

  • Defunct party

  • Began in opposition to PRI (1988)

  • Supported progressive and democratic reform

  • AMLO left PRD in 2012 to form Morena, taking many members with him.

  • Formed alliances to become relevant but ultimately failed.

• PT (Partido del Trabajo)

  • Emerging third party

  • Pro federalism/decentralization of power

  • Supports a mixed economy (private businesses and nationalized government services)

  • Behind judicial reform of 2024

  • Initially allied with PRD (2000-2012) then split with AMLO to ally with Morena (2018, 2024)

• PVEM (Partido Verde Ecologista de México)

  • Environmentally focused “green” party

  • Historically weak

  • Allied with PAN (2000), PRI (2006, 2012, 2018), and Morena (2024)

• Citizen’s Movement (Movimiento Ciudadano)

  • Center-left

  • Founded in 1999 by former PRI members

  • Has been unsuccessful

  • Requires PAN, PRD, and PRI to unite to remain relevant despite their differences.

  • Currently in coalition with PT, Morena, and Verde (green party)

Recent General Elections

• 2000 Presidential Election

  • Vincente Fox (PAN) - 16 million - 43.43%

  • Francisco Labastida (PRI) - 13.5 million - 36.89%

  • Cuauhtemoc Cardenas (PRD) - 6.2 million - 17%

• 2006 Presidential Election

  • Felipe Calderon (PAN) - 15 million - 37%

  • AMLO (PRD) - 14.8 million - 36%

  • Roberto Medrazo (PRI) - 9 million - 23%

• 2012 Presidential Election

  • Enrique Pena Nieto (PRI) - 19 million - 39%

  • AMLO (PRD) - 16 million - 32%

  • Josefina Vazquez Mota - 13 million - 26%

• 2018 Presidential Election

  • AMLO (Morena) - 30 million - 55%

  • Ricardo Anaya (PAN) - 13 million - 23%

  • Jose Antonio Meade (PRI) - 9 million - 17%

  • Jaime Rodriguez Calderon (Ind) - 3 million - 5%

• 2024 Presidential Election

  • Claudia Sheinbaum (Morena) - 36 million - 61%

  • Xochitl Galvez (PAN) - 17 million - 28%

  • Jorge Maynez (MC) - 6 million - 10%

Power/Authority Structure

• Power/authority is shared between Mexico’s national/central government and its 32 divisions (31 states and Mexico City)

• The states/CDMX are free, sovereign, and autonomous in managing their internal affairs

• State constitutions cannot contradict national laws

• Led by an elected government, congress, and courts

• States are divided into “municipalities”

• Mexico’s 2,476 municipalities have regional autonomy and elections

• Political authority of Mexico is intentionally decentralized

• Since the end of the PRI’s dominant rule, states/municipalities have utilized their formal powers more often.

• More REAL federalism = more democratic

Separation of Powers

• 3 independent branches in constitution

• Nobody can work in more than one branch simultaneously, promoting democracy.

Representative Government

• The 1917 Mexican Constitution guarantees its citizens a representative government

• Citizens elect representatives at national, state, and local levels, enhancing legitimacy.

Presidency Basics

• Head of state and head of government

• Elected by plurality vote

• Serves 6-year terms (sexenio), cannot run for re-election

• No vice-president

Powers

• Execute laws created by legislative branch

• Appointments including cabinet, ambassadors, military leaders (some require legislative approval)

• Includes recommending 3 justices to the Supreme Court (requires Senate approval)

• Manages foreign policy, treaties, declares war (with congressional approval)

• National Security - Commander of armed forces against internal/external threats

• Grant pardons

Congress of the Union

Basics

• Senate of the Republic

  • “Upper house”

  • 128 members

  • 6-year terms (after amendment, may serve consecutive terms)

  • 3 senators per state (96 senators)

  • Each party runs two candidates on the same ticket; the winning pair gets 2 seats.

  • Runner-up picks who gets the 3rd seat (first minority)

  • 32 chosen through nationwide proportional representation

• Chamber of Deputies

  • “Lower house”

  • 500 members

  • 3-year terms (may be re-elected)

  • 300 members elected by plurality (first-past-the-post) from single member districts

  • 200 members assigned to parties through proportional representation rules

  • “Parallel voting” - different election methods for the same governing body

Powers of Congress

• Senate: Confirms presidential appointments (including the Supreme Court), approves treaties, and national interventions in state matters

• Chamber of Deputies: Approves legislation, oversees budget, levies taxes, verifies election outcomes, and reviews foreign policy

• On advice of the president, Congress can declare war

Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation

Pre-2024 Judicial Reform

• 11 justices

• 15-year terms

• President submits candidates' list, Senate affirms

• Has power of “judicial review” (can declare laws unconstitutional)

• Aspect of “checks and balances” - more democratic

• Mexico has state/lower courts with various jurisdictions (aspect of federalism)

Post-2024 Judicial Reform

• AMLO and Morena proposed changes to judiciary to combat corruption

• Amendments passed with ⅔ required vote in both houses and ratified by majority of state legislature

• Major changes include:

  • Every judge elected by the people

  • Congress submits candidates; people elect through a popular vote

  • 9 justices instead of 11 in the supreme court

  • “Faceless judges” to protect lives/integrity of judiciary in cartel areas

• Mexico now the 1st country where every judge is elected

Recent Electoral Changes

• Increased number of senators from 64 to 128

• Institute of Federal Elections (IFE) organizes presidential and congressional elections; registers voters and political parties

• IFE provides media to all parties

• Limits funding for each party

• Allocates public funds to citizens

• Results confirmed by IFE

• Independent agency ensuring fair elections

• In 1991, priests gained suffrage

• Mexicans receive free voter-ID card

• Quotas require political parties to have a certain number of female candidates.

United Kingdom

Countries

• Countries: The UK is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

Legislative Branch

• Legislative Branch: The UK has a bicameral Parliament consisting of:

  • House of Lords (Upper House): Composed of both hereditary and life peers.

  • House of Commons (Elected Lower House): 650 seats, each representing a constituency.

Government Structure

• Head of State: King Charles III.

• Head of Government: Prime Minister Keir Starmer (Rt Hon Sir Keir Starmer KCB KC MP).

• Unitary System: In a unitary system of government, all significant political power resides with the central government, and local governments only have the authority delegated to them by this central authority.

Historical Significance

• Magna Carta: The Magna Carta limits the king's absolute power by protecting the barons from illegal imprisonment, ensuring certain levels of religious freedom, and capping taxes that the crown can impose on the barons.

Enlightenment Philosophers

• Social Contract: Theoretical agreement where individuals give up some freedoms in exchange for government protection.

• Natural Rights: Inherent rights belonging to every human being, such as the right to life, liberty, and property.

Legislative Milestones

• English Bill of Rights (1689): Established individual rights like freedom of speech within Parliament, right to petition the king, and limited monarch's power.

• Representation of the People Act (1918): Widened suffrage by abolishing property qualifications for men and enfranchising women over 30 with property qualifications.

• Representation of the People Act (1928): Granted women the right to vote on equal terms with men, giving the vote to all women over 21, regardless of property ownership.

UK Parliament Structure

Legislative Branch is known as Parliament

Bicameral

• House of Commons: 650 seats. A majority requires 326 seats. All MPs are elected by the first-past-the-post voting system.

• House of Lords: 799 seats, nearly 800, with around 80% elected and 20% appointed members. 92 hereditary peers remain, while life peers are appointed for their lifetime contributions to society.

• Membership of the House of Lords: Members are not elected; they are appointed by the monarch with advice from the Prime Minister. Bishops and hereditary peers follow different criteria.