Maya
Olmec
Toltec
Aztec
Conquered by Spain
New political/social/economic hierarchy established
Spanish language and Roman Catholicism became prevalent
Attempts at reform (āLa Reformaā)
War against French intervention aimed at establishing a constitutional monarchy
āRestored republicā ā period after victory against France and before Porfirio Diazās āDictatorshipā
Definition: Political, economic, or social divisions within a state that influence political/social behavior (e.g., voting)
Examples in Mexico:
Regional cleavage: North is industrialized compared to the indigenous south, impacting economic conditions; wealthier north vs. poorer south.
Ethnic cleavage: Divisions between whites, indigenous, and mestizos, where mestizos and whites typically have better living standards than the indigenous.
Urban vs. Rural cleavage: Differences in conditions and service access; urban areas tend to be more developed and wealthier compared to rural areas that often face poverty.
Common cleavage absent in Mexico: Religion is typically a cleavage in other states, but Mexico is predominantly Catholic.
Porfirio Diaz: Military dictator (1876-1911); overthrew elected president in coup dāĆ©tat (1876)
Porfiriato: Policies of āorder and progressā including modernization and suppression of civil liberties.
By 1910, widespread anger at Diaz due to failed land reforms and political corruption led to revolutionary activities.
Post-Diaz: Revolutionary leaders could not unite on reforms, leading to civil strife until Alvaro Obregon was elected president in 1920.
1917 Constitution, establishing:
Constitutional presidential republic
Federal distribution of power
Separation of powers among 3 branches
Bicameral legislature (Senate, Chamber of Deputies)
Civil liberties, right to work, free education, commitment to land reform, workersā rights.
Established in 1929 (as National Revolutionary Party), later becoming PRI in 1946.
Aimed for peace among revolutionaries and took control of Mexican politics (1929-2000).
āEl Dedazoā: Tradition of presidents selecting successors.
Federalism
Advantages:
Power sharing protects against tyranny
Addresses local needs and diversity
Greater citizen participation opportunities
Disadvantages:
Power conflicts between governments
Inequalities between states
Inefficiency and increased costs.
Separation of Powers
All 3 branches are independent, no overlap in officials, promoting democracy.
Representative Government
Citizens elect representatives at all government levels.
Elected by plurality vote, serves 6-year term (sexenio), no re-election.
Powers include law execution, appointments, foreign policy, national security, and granting pardons.
Historically controlled politics (āimperial presidencyā).
Cleavage: Political, economic, or social division within a state.
Bureaucracy: Management system operated by many officials following rules; can lead to inefficiencies.
First Past the Post (FPTP): A voting system where the candidate with the most votes in a district wins, irrespective of majority.
Proportional Representation (PR): Electoral system where parties gain seats in proportion to votes received.
PEMEX: State-owned petroleum corporation managed by the Mexican government; nationalized in the 1930s and privatized in the 2010s.
Tariff: Tax imposed on foreign goods.
Maquiladoras: Factories in Mexico for processing imported components for export, providing employment and contributing to trade.
Export: Sending goods or services to another country for sale.
Import: Bringing goods or services into a country from abroad for sale.
Tlatelolco Massacre: 1968 military attack on unarmed civilians, resulting in numerous deaths, part of Mexican Dirty War.
Zapatista Uprising: Indigenous-led protest on January 1, 1994, against NAFTA, fighting for indigenous rights and land reform.
Mexicoās Cleavages
Gender
Economic status/class
Rural - Urban - Suburban
Geographic location
Age
PRI is no longer dominant
Dedazo tradition is over
Quotas require political parties to have a certain amount of female candidates
In 2018 elections, women won half the seats in congress and half in state legislatures. Mayor of Mexico City is also a woman.
In 2024, both leading candidates were women.
Morena (Movimiento de RegeneraciĆ³n Nacional) - most popular party now
Supports ethnic, religious, cultural, and sexual diversity; respect for human rights; environmental care (all in charter)
AGAINST āneoliberalismā (free market, low tariffs, limited government intervention, privatization of industries, foreign investment, de-regulation of banks)
Pro-labor -> support unions and workers
Opposed privatization of PEMEX
Progressive agenda -> pro LGBTQ, pro legalization of marijuana, indigenous rights
Change āwar on drugsā strategy -> less US-Mexico security cooperation, more Latin American cooperation
Decrease wage gaps, rather than increase taxes on the wealthy
āFoundedā by AMLO
āLeft wing populistā
PRI (Partido Revolucionario Institucional)
Led dominant party system from 1929 to 2000
Used corporatism (state-sanctioned groups control policy-making in labor, business, and agricultural sectors), co-option (control opposition by offering āseat at the tableā for policy-making, but not actually taking their input), election fraud, and political repression = ALL NON-DEMOCRATIC
Political beliefs varied widely, attempting to maintain support
Nationalized industry then privatized, high tariffs then āfree-tradeā (NAFTA), shifting land policies
PRI won presidency in 2012 but faced corruption during the term, leading to poor performance in 2018 elections.
PAN (Partido AcciĆ³n Nacional)
Conservative party
Favors free enterprise, small government, and privatization
Member of Christian Democrat Organization of America
Opposes contraceptives and same-sex marriage
Strong in 2000s and early 2010s
PRD (Partido de la RevoluciĆ³n DemocrĆ”tica)
Defunct party
Began in opposition to PRI (1988)
Supported progressive and democratic reform
AMLO left PRD in 2012 to form Morena, taking many members with him.
Formed alliances to become relevant but ultimately failed.
PT (Partido del Trabajo)
Emerging third party
Pro federalism/decentralization of power
Supports a mixed economy (private businesses and nationalized government services)
Behind judicial reform of 2024
Initially allied with PRD (2000-2012) then split with AMLO to ally with Morena (2018, 2024)
PVEM (Partido Verde Ecologista de MĆ©xico)
Environmentally focused āgreenā party
Historically weak
Allied with PAN (2000), PRI (2006, 2012, 2018), and Morena (2024)
Citizenās Movement (Movimiento Ciudadano)
Center-left
Founded in 1999 by former PRI members
Has been unsuccessful
Requires PAN, PRD, and PRI to unite to remain relevant despite their differences.
Currently in coalition with PT, Morena, and Verde (green party)
2000 Presidential Election
Vincente Fox (PAN) - 16 million - 43.43%
Francisco Labastida (PRI) - 13.5 million - 36.89%
Cuauhtemoc Cardenas (PRD) - 6.2 million - 17%
2006 Presidential Election
Felipe Calderon (PAN) - 15 million - 37%
AMLO (PRD) - 14.8 million - 36%
Roberto Medrazo (PRI) - 9 million - 23%
2012 Presidential Election
Enrique Pena Nieto (PRI) - 19 million - 39%
AMLO (PRD) - 16 million - 32%
Josefina Vazquez Mota - 13 million - 26%
2018 Presidential Election
AMLO (Morena) - 30 million - 55%
Ricardo Anaya (PAN) - 13 million - 23%
Jose Antonio Meade (PRI) - 9 million - 17%
Jaime Rodriguez Calderon (Ind) - 3 million - 5%
2024 Presidential Election
Claudia Sheinbaum (Morena) - 36 million - 61%
Xochitl Galvez (PAN) - 17 million - 28%
Jorge Maynez (MC) - 6 million - 10%
Power/authority is shared between Mexicoās national/central government and its 32 divisions (31 states and Mexico City)
The states/CDMX are free, sovereign, and autonomous in managing their internal affairs
State constitutions cannot contradict national laws
Led by an elected government, congress, and courts
States are divided into āmunicipalitiesā
Mexicoās 2,476 municipalities have regional autonomy and elections
Political authority of Mexico is intentionally decentralized
Since the end of the PRIās dominant rule, states/municipalities have utilized their formal powers more often.
More REAL federalism = more democratic
3 independent branches in constitution
Nobody can work in more than one branch simultaneously, promoting democracy.
The 1917 Mexican Constitution guarantees its citizens a representative government
Citizens elect representatives at national, state, and local levels, enhancing legitimacy.
Head of state and head of government
Elected by plurality vote
Serves 6-year terms (sexenio), cannot run for re-election
No vice-president
Execute laws created by legislative branch
Appointments including cabinet, ambassadors, military leaders (some require legislative approval)
Includes recommending 3 justices to the Supreme Court (requires Senate approval)
Manages foreign policy, treaties, declares war (with congressional approval)
National Security - Commander of armed forces against internal/external threats
Grant pardons
Senate of the Republic
āUpper houseā
128 members
6-year terms (after amendment, may serve consecutive terms)
3 senators per state (96 senators)
Each party runs two candidates on the same ticket; the winning pair gets 2 seats.
Runner-up picks who gets the 3rd seat (first minority)
32 chosen through nationwide proportional representation
Chamber of Deputies
āLower houseā
500 members
3-year terms (may be re-elected)
300 members elected by plurality (first-past-the-post) from single member districts
200 members assigned to parties through proportional representation rules
āParallel votingā - different election methods for the same governing body
Senate: Confirms presidential appointments (including the Supreme Court), approves treaties, and national interventions in state matters
Chamber of Deputies: Approves legislation, oversees budget, levies taxes, verifies election outcomes, and reviews foreign policy
On advice of the president, Congress can declare war
11 justices
15-year terms
President submits candidates' list, Senate affirms
Has power of ājudicial reviewā (can declare laws unconstitutional)
Aspect of āchecks and balancesā - more democratic
Mexico has state/lower courts with various jurisdictions (aspect of federalism)
AMLO and Morena proposed changes to judiciary to combat corruption
Amendments passed with ā required vote in both houses and ratified by majority of state legislature
Major changes include:
Every judge elected by the people
Congress submits candidates; people elect through a popular vote
9 justices instead of 11 in the supreme court
āFaceless judgesā to protect lives/integrity of judiciary in cartel areas
Mexico now the 1st country where every judge is elected
Increased number of senators from 64 to 128
Institute of Federal Elections (IFE) organizes presidential and congressional elections; registers voters and political parties
IFE provides media to all parties
Limits funding for each party
Allocates public funds to citizens
Results confirmed by IFE
Independent agency ensuring fair elections
In 1991, priests gained suffrage
Mexicans receive free voter-ID card
Quotas require political parties to have a certain number of female candidates.
Countries: The UK is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.
Legislative Branch: The UK has a bicameral Parliament consisting of:
House of Lords (Upper House): Composed of both hereditary and life peers.
House of Commons (Elected Lower House): 650 seats, each representing a constituency.
Head of State: King Charles III.
Head of Government: Prime Minister Keir Starmer (Rt Hon Sir Keir Starmer KCB KC MP).
Unitary System: In a unitary system of government, all significant political power resides with the central government, and local governments only have the authority delegated to them by this central authority.
Magna Carta: The Magna Carta limits the king's absolute power by protecting the barons from illegal imprisonment, ensuring certain levels of religious freedom, and capping taxes that the crown can impose on the barons.
Social Contract: Theoretical agreement where individuals give up some freedoms in exchange for government protection.
Natural Rights: Inherent rights belonging to every human being, such as the right to life, liberty, and property.
English Bill of Rights (1689): Established individual rights like freedom of speech within Parliament, right to petition the king, and limited monarch's power.
Representation of the People Act (1918): Widened suffrage by abolishing property qualifications for men and enfranchising women over 30 with property qualifications.
Representation of the People Act (1928): Granted women the right to vote on equal terms with men, giving the vote to all women over 21, regardless of property ownership.
Legislative Branch is known as Parliament
Bicameral
House of Commons: 650 seats. A majority requires 326 seats. All MPs are elected by the first-past-the-post voting system.
House of Lords: 799 seats, nearly 800, with around 80% elected and 20% appointed members. 92 hereditary peers remain, while life peers are appointed for their lifetime contributions to society.
Membership of the House of Lords: Members are not elected; they are appointed by the monarch with advice from the Prime Minister. Bishops and hereditary peers follow different criteria.