APUSH Time Period #4 - U.S. History: Expansion, Reform, and the Jacksonian Era (1800-1850s)
The Election and Revolution of 1800
The Election of 1800: This election marked the first time the United States had a clear choice between political parties.
Tie and Outcome: The initial vote resulted in a tie between Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both of whom were Democratic-Republicans. Ultimately, Jefferson won the election.
Revolution of 1800: The transition is famously referred to as the "Revolution of 1800." This term describes the peaceful passing of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans, which served as a significant demonstration of the endurance and flexibility of the U.S. Constitution.
Thomas Jefferson's Presidency
Maintaining Institutions: Jefferson attempted to build trust with the Federalists by maintaining Alexander Hamilton's national bank and the existing debt repayment plan.
Democratic-Republican Principles: True to his party's principles, he successfully reduced the military, repealed excise taxes, and lowered the national debt.
The Louisiana Purchase: - History of Ownership: The Louisiana Territory transitioned from France to Spain, back to France, and finally to the United States. Napoleon had planned to restore the French Empire in the Americas but was halted by the Haitian Rebellion and a desire to concentrate resources on fighting the British. - Negotiation: After Spain closed the port of New Orleans and revoked Pinckney's Treaty, the United States went to negotiate with France. - The Deal: The entire Louisiana Territory was sold to the U.S. for a total of . - Effects: - The purchase removed the French presence from North America. - It significantly increased Jefferson's popularity while decreasing Federalist popularity. - The Lewis and Clark Expedition followed, which expanded knowledge of geography and science and improved U.S. control over the Oregon Territory and relations with Native Americans.
Impeachments: - Jefferson perceived the Alien and Sedition Acts as unconstitutional and led an impeachment campaign against Federalist judges. - With the exception of two specific cases, this campaign was largely unsuccessful. - However, the threat of impeachment compelled judges to become more cautious and less partisan in their rulings.
Aaron Burr's Conflict: - Burr criticized Jefferson for "abandoning" Democratic-Republican principles. - He formed a conspiracy in New York with the goal of secession. - Burr eventually killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel and was later arrested and charged with treason.
The Marshall Court and Key Judicial Cases
John Marshall: He served as the Federalist Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and was instrumental in establishing the power of the federal government.
Marbury v. Madison (1803): An appointed judge sued James Madison for failing to deliver his commission. Marshall determined that the Judiciary Act of had granted the Supreme Court too much power, which was unconstitutional. Impact: Established the principle of judicial review.
Fletcher v. Peck (1810): Marshall concluded that a state could not pass legislation that invalidated a legal contract. Impact: Established that the federal government could declare state laws unconstitutional.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): A New Hampshire law attempted to change Dartmouth from a private to a public institution. Marshall declared the state law unconstitutional. Impact: Established that private institutions cannot be affected by state government interference.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Maryland attempted to tax the National Bank. Marshall ruled that a state cannot tax a federal institution. Impact: Declared federal laws supreme over state laws and confirmed the National Bank as constitutional.
Cohens v. Virginia (1821): The Cohen brothers were convicted for illegally selling lottery tickets; Marshall supported Virginia's conviction. Impact: Established that the Supreme Court could review state court decisions involving federal government power.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1821): A New York steamboat monopoly conflicted with a charter granted by Congress. The New York monopoly was declared unconstitutional. Impact: Asserted that the federal government had broad control over interstate commerce.
Foreign Policy and Madison's Presidency
Jefferson's Neutrality: Jefferson attempted to uphold neutrality, though it became increasingly difficult during his second term.
Barbary Pirates: North African pirates seized U.S. ships and demanded tribute. Jefferson refused to pay, leading to sporadic war between and . While there was no decisive victory, the U.S. won respect and protection for its vessels.
Napoleonic Wars: France and Britain regularly seized neutral U.S. ships. The British navy dominated the Atlantic and engaged in the impressment of U.S. sailors.
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807): The British ship Leopard fired on the U.S. ship Chesapeake, killing and impressing Americans. Despite public demands for war, Jefferson resorted to diplomacy.
The Embargo Act (1807): - The Plan: Banned the U.S. from all foreign trade, logic being that Britain would lose vital trade and stop violating neutral rights. - The Reality: Britain did not cave and found other suppliers. The act devastated the U.S. economy and was repealed by Jefferson in . It is considered one of his key failures.
James Madison (Elected 1808): A Democratic-Republican supported by Jefferson, Madison faced the same European issues. - Nonintercourse Act of 1809: Provided that the U.S. could now trade with all nations except Britain and France. - Macon's Bill #2: Proposed that if either Britain or France respected U.S. rights at sea, the U.S. would stop trade with their foe. Napoleon agreed; the U.S. stopped trade with Britain, but France continued to seize U.S. ships regardless.
The War of 1812
Causes: Lack of respect for U.S. neutrality, British support of Tecumseh (Native American leader), and the influence of the "War Hawks" (war-eager Democratic-Republicans).
Opposition: The "Quids" (Old Democratic-Republicans) and Federalists/Northern merchants opposed the war.
Election of 1812: Madison (Democratic-Republican) won, with the South/West supporting war and the North opposing it.
Military Highlights: - Madison bet on Napoleon's success and a land campaign in Canada, but Canadian invasions were easily repulsed. - Notable U.S. naval victories occurred at Lake Erie and the Battle of Thames (where Tecumseh was killed). - Lake Champlain saw a British retreat. - The British burned the White House and the Capitol; this era produced the "Star-Spangled Banner." - Battle of Horseshoe Bend: Andrew Jackson ended the power of the Creek Nation (a British ally). - Battle of New Orleans: A final, decisive U.S. victory involving Jackson.
Hartford Convention: Just before the war ended, radical Federalists threatened that several New England states would secede from the U.S. This denounced the Federalists, ending their power and setting a later precedent for the South.
The Treaty of Ghent: Ended the war with a "stalemate." All pre-war boundaries and territories were returned. It failed to address the grievances that led to war (impressment). In response, the U.S. moved toward industrial self-sufficiency.
The Era of Good Feelings and Henry Clay
James Monroe (Elected 1816): His presidency is known as the "Era of Good Feelings," though economic and political tensions remained.
Tariff of 1816: Following the War of 1812, the U.S. became more self-sufficient and did not want British imports to harm U.S. businesses. This was the first protective tariff in U.S. history; New England opposed it while the West and South supported it.
Henry Clay's American System: Consisted of three parts: 1. Protective tariffs. 2. A Second National Bank (the first had expired in ). 3. Internal improvements (roads, canals, etc.). - Madison and Monroe opposed federal spending on internal improvements as they felt it wasn't in the Constitution, leaving it to the states.
Panic of 1819: The first major economic depression, caused by the Second National Bank tightening credit to control inflation. Banks closed, and unemployment and debt imprisonment rose. Westerners called for land reform and opposed the National Bank.
Sectionalism and Westward Expansion
Factors for Migration: Improved transportation, economic pressures in the East, and the availability of land.
Slavery Debate: Western statehood (specifically Missouri) led to heated debates. Congress tried to maintain a balance between slave and free states (e.g., Vermont and Kentucky).
Tallmadge Amendment: Proposed to prohibit further import of slaves to Missouri and emancipate slaves at age . It did not pass.
The Missouri Compromise (Henry Clay): 1. Admit Missouri as a slave state. 2. Admit Maine as a free state. 3. Prohibit slavery north of the latitude line .
Monroe's Foreign Policy
Rush-Bagot Agreement: A major disarmament pact with Britain involving the Great Lakes.
Treaty of 1818: Shared fishing off Newfoundland, joint occupation of the Oregon Territory, and established the northern U.S./Canada border.
Adams-Onis Treaty: General Andrew Jackson led an aggressive campaign into Florida. Fearing a total seizure, Spain sold Florida to the U.S.
Monroe Doctrine: Concerned about the surge of monarchies in Europe, the U.S. acted alone to declare that the Americas shall not be further colonized. Any interference would be seen as an act of aggression against the U.S. While European monarchs were angry, Britain backed the U.S. declaration.
The Market Revolution and Innovations
Shift in Society: The saw a decrease in rural farmers and an increase in commerce and factory workers.
The Old Northwest: Became the "breadbasket" of the U.S., focusing on corn and wheat.
Innovations: - Roads: Lancaster Turnpike; however, states' rights advocates often blocked federal spending on internal improvements. - Canals: The Erie Canal revolutionized transport. - Steam Engines & Railroads: Accelerated movement. - Telegraph: Improved communication.
Corporations: In , New York passed a law allowing shares of stock to be sold, meaning investors only risked what they invested.
Lowell System: A textile mill system in Massachusetts that hired young women for long hours. The North eventually made extensive use of immigrant and child labor.
Labor Unions: Artisans couldn't compete with factories. Goals included reducing the workday to hours. Obstacles included immigrant replacement workers, outlawing of unions, and economic depressions.
Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842): Ruled that peaceful unions had the right to negotiate labor contracts.
Agriculture: Commercial farming grew because land was cheap, and canals/rails made trade with the East possible. The cotton gin made cotton the dominant crop; Northern textile production depended entirely on Southern cotton.
Jacksonian Democracy
The "Common Man": Equality governed U.S. society compared to Europe. Universal white male suffrage was adopted (no religious or property requirements).
Political Changes: Candidates were selected by voters rather than legislatures (Anti-Masonic Party was the first). Electors were chosen by voters.
Spoils System: Andrew Jackson practiced replacing government jobs with party loyalists. He believed in "rotation in office" with one-term limits.
Election of 1824: A disaster that ended the Era of Good Feelings. Jackson won the popular vote but lacked a majority in the electoral college. The House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams (the "Corrupt Bargain" with Henry Clay as VP).
Jackson's Presidency: Jackson was unique as a war hero from a "log cabin." He was a frugal Jeffersonian who vetoed more bills than all predecessors combined.
Native American Policy: - Indian Removal Act: Forced resettlement of thousands. - Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: Ruled they couldn't sue in federal court. - Worcester v. Georgia: Ruled Georgia had no force in Cherokee territory. - Jackson sided with the states, leading to the Trail of Tears, which caused thousands of deaths.
Nullification Crisis: Southerners were furious at the "Tariff of Abominations" (). South Carolina attempted to nullify it and secede. Jackson prepared the military and passed the Force Bill. A compromise was reached with a lower tariff.
Bank War: Jackson viewed the National Bank as unconstitutional and serving only the wealthy. He vetoed the recharter and moved funds to state "pet banks."
The Two-Party System: - Democrats (Jackson): Resembled the old Democratic-Republicans. - Whigs (Clay): Resembled the old Federalists.
Martin Van Buren: Won in but inherited the Panic of 1837, caused by the Specie Circular (requiring land purchases in gold/silver rather than banknotes).
The Frontier: Mountain Men served as early pathfinders. Life was difficult and caused significant environmental damage.
Emerging U.S. Culture and the Second Great Awakening
Transcendentalism: A philosophy promoting intuitive, spiritual thinking over science/materialism. - Ralph Waldo Emerson: Urged individualism and a unique American identity. - Henry David Thoreau: Author of Walden; wrote Civil Disobedience after being jailed for refusing to pay taxes for the Mexican-American War.
Utopias: Experiments like Brook Farm (secular), Shakers (religious, banned marriage), New Harmony (secular socialist), Amana (German Pietists), and Oneida (social/economic equality, silverware production).
The Second Great Awakening: A religious revival marking a reassertion of Calvinist teachings. - Causes: Democracy, individualism, market revolution disruptions. - Figures: Timothy Dwight (Yale) and Charles Finney (NY's "burned-over district"). - Millennialism: William Miller's belief in the second coming of Jesus. - Mormonism: Founded by Joseph Smith; resettled in New Zion (Salt Lake City).
Era of Reform
Temperance: Targeted alcohol as the cause of crime and abuse. The American Temperance Society was formed. German and Irish immigrants generally opposed these movements.
Asylums: Dorothea Dix pioneered reform for the mentally ill. Pennsylvania led prison reform with "penitentiaries" (the Auburn System).
Education: Horace Mann advocated for compulsory attendance and longer school years.
Women's Rights: The Seneca Falls Convention (1848) issued the Declaration of Sentiments. However, the movement was overshadowed by the slavery issue by the .
Abolition: - American Colonization Society: Proposed transporting free African Americans to Liberia (failed because few wanted to leave). - Liberty Party: Sought abolition through politics. - William Lloyd Garrison: Published The Liberator, advocating for a violent and immediate end to slavery. - Frederick Douglass: Former slave who published the North Star. - Nat Turner's Rebellion: Led to the deaths of hundreds of slaves and increased fear/stricter codes in the South.
The Antebellum South
Economy: Dominated by "King Cotton." The world was dependent on U.S. cotton exports.
Social Hierarchy: - Plantation Owners: families produced half the world's cotton; they held all economic and political power. - Small Farmers: Owned fewer than slaves. - Non-Slave Owning Whites: Accounted for of the white population. Many were subsistence farmers who still felt superior to Black people based on race. - Mountain People: Lived in the Appalachians and often remained loyal to the Union during the later Civil War.
Free Black Population: About of the Black population in the South. They were legally unequal and at risk of kidnapping.
Slave Resistance: Included intentional sabotage, laziness, and running away. Notable failed revolts included those by Gabriel Prosser, Denmark Vesey, and Nat Turner, which resulted in stricter slave codes.