HIST 112 Western Civilization Midterm Exam Study Guide

HIST 112 Western Civilization Midterm Exam Study Guide
Exam Format

  • Type: Narrative essay format, requiring analytical depth and synthesis of course material.

  • Length Requirement: 700 word minimum, emphasizing comprehensive argumentation and evidence.

  • Questions: Two broad questions will appear, requiring students to choose one to answer in detail. Questions will likely connect multiple themes.

Key Subjects to Study

Challenging the Authority of Monarchy

  • Definition of Absolutism: A political system, prominent in 17th and 18th-century Europe, where a single ruler (monarch) holds ultimate, unchecked, and often divinely sanctioned power over the state and its subjects. Characteristics include centralized administration, a standing army, and control over religion and economy.

  • Louis XIV's Personification of Absolutism:

    • Ruled France from 1643 to 1715, known as the "Sun King."

    • Famous for his statement, "L'état, c'est moi" (I am the state), encapsulating his belief in his absolute sovereignty and divine right.

    • Implemented extensive centralization of government, reducing the power of the nobility and consolidating royal authority through a vast bureaucracy.

    • Cultivated a culture of absolute power through his opulent court at Versailles, which served to control and symbolize his undisputed authority over France and overshadow potential rivals.

    • Revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685, forcing Huguenots (French Protestants) to convert to Catholicism or flee, asserting religious uniformity under the crown.

Constitutional Monarchy and the English Civil War

  • Charles I and Constitutional Monarchy Challenges:

    • Faced significant opposition from Parliament, particularly over issues of taxation (e.g., "Ship Money" levied without parliamentary consent) and royal prerogatives, as Charles believed in the divine right of kings.

    • Conflicts escalated when Charles attempted to rule without Parliament for eleven years (1629-1640), leading to deep constitutional crises.

    • Events leading to the English Civil War (1642-1651): Disagreements over governance, religious policy, and the extent of royal power led to armed conflict between Royalists (Cavaliers, primarily supporters of Charles I and the Anglican Church) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads, often Puritans and gentry who defended parliamentary rights).

    • Outcomes:

    • Execution of Charles I in 1649, marking a revolutionary moment in European history as a monarch was publicly tried and executed by his own people.

    • Establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, a republican government (1649-1660) that transformed into a Protectorate under Cromwell as Lord Protector, effectively a military dictatorship.

    • The eventual Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 with Charles II, but with Parliament gaining significant power, paving the way for a constitutional monarchy where the monarch's power was limited by law and Parliament.

Enlightenment Ideas and Their Impact

  • Overview of Enlightenment: A profound 17th and 18th-century intellectual and cultural movement in Europe emphasizing human reason, scientific inquiry, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority, especially absolute monarchy and the established church. It sought to apply scientific methods to understand society and governance.

  • Key Philosophers:

    • John Locke: Advocated for natural rights (life, liberty, property) in his Two Treatises of Government, arguing that government's legitimacy derives from the consent of the governed, and individuals have the right to rebel against tyrannical rule. Conceptualized tabula rasa (blank slate) regarding human knowledge.

    • Voltaire: A fierce critic of religious intolerance, censorship, and arbitrary power. Advocated for freedom of speech and religion, famously stating, "I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it." (Candide is one of his notable works).

    • Rousseau: Promoted the idea of the social contract in The Social Contract, arguing that legitimate political authority comes from the "general will" of the people. Also discussed the concept of the "noble savage" and the corrupting influence of society.

  • Influence on Revolutions:

    • Enlightenment philosophy profoundly fueled major revolutions in America, Haiti, and France, providing intellectual justification for challenging existing political and social orders.

    • Example: The American Revolution (1776) was directly inspired by Locke's ideas of liberty, natural rights, and government by consent, as articulated in the Declaration of Independence.

Connections Among the Three Revolutions

  • American Revolution (1775-1783):

    • Origin: Grew out of colonial opposition to British taxation without representation (e.g., Stamp Act, Boston Tea Party) and perceived violations of their rights as Englishmen, heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideals of liberty and self-governance.

    • Aftermath: Formation of a republic based on Enlightenment ideals, with a written constitution and a Bill of Rights, establishing a model for democratic government.

  • Haitian Revolution (1791-1804):

    • Origin: A unique and brutal slave revolt against French colonial rule, sparked by Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality, but driven by the horrific conditions of slavery and racial inequality.

    • Aftermath: Led by figures like Toussaint Louverture, it resulted in the establishment of Haiti as the first independent Black-led republic in the world and the only successful slave revolt to form a state, sending shockwaves through slave-owning societies.

  • French Revolution (1789-1799):

    • Origin: Precipitated by profound social inequality (the rigid Estate system), economic hardship, and a severe financial crisis in France. Influenced by American example and Enlightenment critiques of absolutism.

    • Aftermath: Ended the absolute monarchy and feudalism in France, leading to a republic, the radical Reign of Terror, and ultimately the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who spread revolutionary ideas (e.g., Napoleonic Code) across Europe.

The History of Ideas

  • Scientific Discovery and Society's Reaction:

    • Witchcraft Accusations: Predominant between 1450 and 1750, these accusations were reflective of profound societal fears, religious anxieties (Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation), economic instability, and gender biases, often targeting marginalized women as witches based on superstitions and a belief in malevolent magic. The decline of witchcraft trials coincided with the rise of rational thought and legal reforms.

    • Debate on Geocentricity vs. Heliocentricity:

    • Geocentric Theory: The long-held Ptolemaic model, supported by the Church, positioned Earth as the stationary center of the universe, with all celestial bodies orbiting around it.

    • Heliocentric Theory: Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543, this theory placed the Sun at the center of the universe, with Earth and other planets orbiting it. Later supported and developed by Galileo Galilei (with observational evidence from his telescope, leading to his trial and condemnation by the Inquisition) and Johannes Kepler (who formulated laws of planetary motion), it led to significant shifts in scientific inquiry, challenged established religious dogma, and laid foundations for modern astronomy and physics.

Central Ideas of the Enlightenment

  • Deism: A religious belief that emerged during the Enlightenment, emphasizing reason and observation of the natural world to deduce the existence of a creator God (a 'watchmaker God') who designed the universe and set it in motion but does not intervene in its affairs or in human history, often rejecting supernatural phenomena, miracles, and the authority of traditional organized religion.

  • Enlightenment Ideals:

    • Importance of reason, critical thinking, and individual rights (e.g., freedom of speech, assembly, property).

    • Emergence of secular thinking in governance and societal structures, advocating for separation of church and state, religious toleration, and a focus on human progress and welfare rather than divine decree.

Political Influence of Enlightenment Ideals

  • Revolutionary Inspirations: Many Enlightenment ideas, such as popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and natural rights, directly prompted calls for reform and fueled revolutions against tyrannical and absolute governments, leading to the formation of new political systems.

  • Abolition of Slave Trade: Enlightenment thinkers, by emphasizing universal human rights and the inherent dignity of individuals, provided powerful arguments against the institution of slavery, which eventually led to significant movements for its abolition worldwide.

Study Guidelines

  • Review notes from class, textbooks, and PowerPoints available on Blackboard.

  • Include secondary learning from primary sources (e.g., excerpts from Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, or revolutionary documents) in essays to support arguments and demonstrate depth of understanding.

  • Focus on understanding the interconnections and causality between these historical developments, rather than just memorizing isolated facts, to effectively answer narrative essay questions.

  • Notecard Use: A small notecard (e.g., 3x5 or 4x6 inches) is permitted for key terms only; it is strictly restricted from containing definitions, full sentences, or extended explanations. Example terms include:

    • Copernicus

    • Deism

    • Tabula Rasa

    • Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792 (Mary Wollstonecraft)

    • Estates General