Unit 4 APHG.

4.1: Political Geography

  • Definition: The study of how the world is divided and spatially arranged by the exercise of political power and the drawing of boundaries.

  • State:
      - A political unit that has power over a geographic territory defined by borders and contains a population.
      - Attributes sovereignty, which relates to power over territory.

  • Nationality:
      - A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, often linked with a desire for territory.
        

Types of Political Entities

I. Nation
   - A group of people sharing a common language, history, and culture.
II. Nation-State
   - A state composed of a single, unified nation.
III. Stateless Nation
   - A group sharing common cultural values and history but lacking a formal state.
IV. Multistate Nation
   - A single nation living in more than one state.
V. Multinational State
   - States containing multiple cultures and ethnicities within their boundaries, representing most modern countries to varying degrees.
VI. Autonomous and Semi-Autonomous Regions
   - Autonomous Regions: Regions with significant authority to operate independently of national government.
   - Semi-Autonomous Regions: Regions with limited authority granted by the national government.

4.2: Sovereignty, Nation-State, Self-Determination

Political Geography Factors

I. Sovereignty
   - A state's power to determine internal and external affairs within its boundaries, coupled with the right to defend those boundaries.
II. Nation-State
   - A government ruling over a territory composed of a single cultural or ethnic group.
III. Self-Determination
   - The right of all people to choose and determine their form of government.

Historical Influences and Other Processes

I. Imperialism and Colonialism
   - Imperialism: The process where one state dominates another politically, economically, or militarily.
   - Colonialism: A form of imperialism focused on claiming and occupying land.
     - Example: Scramble for Africa.
II. Independence Movements
   - Example: American Revolution against the British Empire leading to the formation of the United States.
III. Devolution
   - The transfer of power from a central authority to regional authorities within a country.
     - Example: Dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 leading to increased autonomy for Eastern European states.

4.3: Political Power & Territoriality

Political Power

  • Definition: Control asserted by states over people, resources, and territory.
       

Political Power Factors

I. Shatterbelts
   - Groups of politically and ethnically fragmented states between larger powerful states, often conflicting for control.
   - These regions contain valuable natural resources.
II. Choke Points
   - Strategic geographic passageways restricting passage from one region to another.
     - Example:
       - Strait of Hormuz: Controlled by Iran, crucial for global oil trade.
       - Suez Canal: Controlled by Egypt, vital shortcut between Europe and Asia.
III. Neocolonialism
   - Process by which powerful countries exert control over weaker ones through economic or cultural pressures.
     - Example: Effects of the Scramble for Africa on local economies prioritizing cash crop exports.

Dependency Theory

  • One consequence of colonialism: Former colonies' continuing dependency on more powerful nations for survival.

4.4: Six Types of Political Boundaries

Types of Boundaries

  1. Antecedent Boundaries
       - Boundaries established before territory is populated.

  2. Subsequent Boundaries
       - Boundaries drawn after settlement, reflecting cultural development.

  3. Consequent Boundaries
       - Boundaries consider cultural landscapes, dividing ethnicities, language, religion.

Other Types of Boundaries

  1. Superimposed Boundaries
       - Boundaries drawn by external forces, ignoring cultural differences. Commonly linked to imperialism.
         - Example: Scramble for Africa resulted in arbitrary divisions.

  2. Geometric Boundaries
       - Mathematical boundaries typically following latitude/longitude without consideration of natural features.
         - Example: 49th parallel between the USA and Canada.

  3. Relic Boundaries
       - Boundaries that were functional but no longer serve that purpose.
         - Example: Berlin Wall, which divided East and West Germany until 1989.

4.5: Creating Boundaries

Steps in Boundary Creation

I. Defining
   - Explicitly stating where boundaries are located via legal documents, often referencing natural features.
II. Delimiting
   - Drawing defined boundaries on maps.
III. Demarcating
   - Physical marking of boundaries on landscapes (e.g. walls, pillars).
IV. Administration
   - Enforcing boundary measures with restrictions.

Disputed Boundaries

I. Definitional Boundary Dispute
   - Disagreements on interpretations of legal documents establishing boundaries.
     - Example: Argentina and Chile’s Andes Mountains boundary.
II. Locational Boundary Dispute
   - Disputes arise when established borders shift and different claims emerge.
     - Example: US-Mexico border along the Rio Grande.
III. Operational Boundary Dispute
   - Conflict arises over the function of clear borders.
     - Example: US and Mexico's conflicts over undocumented immigration.
IV. Allocational Boundary Dispute
   - Conflicts due to shared valuable resources across boundaries.
     - Example: Iraq and Kuwait's oil field disputes in the 1990s.

DMZs and Border Policy

I. Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
   - Areas between states with no military presence as agreed by treaties.
     - Example: North and South Korea border.
II. Policy Decisions
   - Historical examples like the Berlin Conference defining colonial borders in Africa.

4.6 INTERNAL BOUNDARIES

Voting Outcomes in U.S. Government

  • Branches of Government:
      1. Executive Branch - President
      2. Judicial Branch - Supreme Court
      3. Legislative Branch - Congress
         - Comprises the Senate and House of Representatives.
         - Senate: 100 members (2 per state).
         - House of Representatives: 435 members (representation not equal).

  • Voting Districts:
       - Residents vote for congressional representatives.
       - Redistricting occurs every 10 years, regulated by the Constitution following a census.
       - Gerrymandering: The manipulation of voting districts by creating unusual shapes to influence election results.
         - Cracking: Splitting opposition party votes across districts.
         - Packing: Concentrating opposition votes within a single district.

4.7 UNITARY & FEDERAL

The Unitary State

  • Definition: Concentration of political power in the central government, with subnational units holding minimal power.

  • Typical Characteristics:
      I. Common in smaller nations with homogenous cultures.
      II. Examples: France, Japan, Saudi Arabia.
      III. Exception: China
      IV. Advantages: Efficiency in governance.
      V. Disadvantages: Often disconnected from local needs, potentially neglecting minority interests.

The Federal State

  • Definition: Political power is shared between central government and regional governments.

  • Characteristics:
      I. Commonly found in large, culturally diverse nations.
      II. Example: United States with its 50 states, each having distinct local governance.
      III. Advantages: More responsive to local needs and policies.
      IV. Disadvantages: Can impede quick policy changes due to necessary negotiation.

4.8 DEVOLUTION

  • Definition: Transfer of power from central government to regional governments, weakening the central authority.

Influencing Factors

I. Physical Geography
   - Barriers affecting connections (e.g. mountains, rivers) impact political organization.
II. Devolution in Spain
   - Granting autonomy to Basque people post-franco's regime.

Related Concepts

  • Ethnic Separatism: Ethnic groups identifying more with their culture than the governing nation.

  • Ethnic Cleansing: Efforts by states to eliminate an ethnic group through violent means.

  • Terrorism: Political violence against governments with the aim of effecting policy change.

  • Irredentism: Movements to reunite culturally unified groups divided by political boundaries.

4.9 FRAGMENTATION

Transfer of Power and Challenges to Sovereignty

Effects of Devolution

I. State Fragmentation
   - Autonomous and semi-autonomous regions.
II. Transfer of Power Examples:
  - Canada: Quebec seeking independence, leading to power transfer to maintain sovereignty.
  - Belgium: Transitioned from unitary to federal to retain two cultural identities.
  - Spain: Transferred power to 17 autonomous regions after Franco.
  - Nigeria: Division into 12 states to reduce ethnic tension.
III. State Disintegration Examples:
  - Sudan and South Sudan: Ethnic conflict leading to separation.
  - Soviet Union: 1991 collapse after devolutionary pressures.

4.10 Technology & Devolution

  • The internet facilitates rapid sharing of news across political boundaries.

Rise of Supranationalism

Supranationalism: Definition and Causes

  • Definition: Process where independent sovereign states cede some power to larger political bodies.

Forces Driving Supranationalism

I. Transnational/Environmental Issues
   - Example: 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change.
II. Global Economies of Scale
   - Producing goods at lower costs through cooperation.
III. Regional and Global Trade Agreements
   - WTO established trade rules and dispute resolutions.
IV. Military Alliances
   - Example: NATO, the world’s largest military alliance.

Major Supranational Organizations

I. United Nations (UN)
   - With 193 member nations, it promotes diplomatic solutions to conflicts.
II. European Union (EU)
   - Facilitates trade, common rights, and environmental policies among European states.
III. Arctic Council
   - Focuses on sustainable development and environmental issues in the Arctic.
IV. African Union
   - Enhances cooperation and resolves border disputes among African nations.
V. Association of Southeast Asian Nations
   - Promotes trade by lowering tariffs.
VI. NATO
   - Military cooperative organization among many western nations.

4.11 Centrifugal & Centripetal Forces

Definitions

  • Centrifugal Forces: Elements that disrupt state unity (e.g., ethnic tensions, political issues).

  • Centripetal Forces: Factors that promote state unity (e.g., nationalism, strong governance).

Consequences

Centrifugal Forces

  • Failed State: A state that loses control, often due to internal corruption or conflict.

  • Uneven Development: Disparities within populations, leading to socio-economic instability.

  • Presence of Stateless Nations: Groups without a nation-state connection, e.g. Kurds.

  • Ethnic Nationalist Movements: Movements arising from coexistence of multiple ethnic groups.

Centripetal Forces

  • Ethnonationalism: Identity and pride associated with a specific ethnic territory.

  • Equitable Infrastructure Development: Enhances support for the government.

  • Cultural Cohesion: Promotes unity through shared cultural practices and resources.