Technology, War and Independence: Britain 1901–Present Day Study Guide

BRITAIN AND THE WORLD AT THE START OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

  • The State of the British Empire (1901):

    • Britain controlled the largest empire in history, covering one-quarter of the Earth's land and ruling roughly 450,000,000 people.

    • Economic status: Britain was the richest country, but its dominance was under threat from the USA (making more goods) and Germany and Japan (catching up rapidly).

    • Military: Britain possessed more battleships than any other two countries combined, but rivals were increasing their army and navy sizes (militarism).

    • Social hierarchy: A rigid class system existed where 3\% were upper class (very rich), 25\% were middle class (bankers, managers), and the vast majority were working class (poor).

  • Technological Developments (1901–1914):

    • Transport: Karl Benz created the first 3-wheeled petrol vehicle in 1885 (10\,\text{mph}); Gottlieb Daimler built the first 4-wheeled car in 1886.

    • The Ford Model T: Henry Ford (1908) used the assembly line to mass-produce cars. Price dropped from \$900 in 1908 to roughly \$200 by 1927.

    • Flight: Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first manned powered flight on 17 December 1903 (lasted 12\,\text{seconds}, covering 37\,\text{m}).

    • Communications: The telephone (invented 1876) and radio became household staples by the 1920s.

TACKLING POVERTY AND THE LIBERAL REFORMS

  • Social Investigations:

    • Charles Booth: Discovered 1/3 of Londoners were too poor to eat properly despite working full-time.

    • Seebohm Rowntree: Found 28\% of York's population lived in poverty, and 40\% of children suffered stunted growth.

    • Army Medicals: 1/3 of First World War volunteers were rejected for being too small, thin, or ill, sparking national security concerns about public health.

  • The Liberal Reforms (1906–1914):

    • Children: The School Meals Act (1906) provided free meals; the Children’s Charter (1908) protected children from neglect, banned them from pubs, and stopped cigarette sales to those under 16.

    • Elderly: Introduction of old age pensions for those over 70 (5\,\text{shillings} a week).

    • Workers: Labour Exchanges (job centres) opened in 1910; National Insurance Act (1911) introduced sickness and unemployment benefits.

THE SUFFRAGETTES AND THE FIGHT FOR THE VOTE

  • Suffragists vs. Suffragettes:

    • Suffragists (NUWSS): Led by Millicent Fawcett, used peaceful tactics (letters, meetings).

    • Suffragettes (WSPU): Formed in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst. Motto: "Deeds, not words." Used militant tactics (chaining to railings, hunger strikes, arson).

  • Emily Davison: Died in 1913 after being hit by the King's horse, Anmer, at the Derby. Debated if it was suicide/martyrdom or a protest gone wrong (she had a return train ticket and flags).

  • Winning the Vote: By 1914, Support for militancy had dropped. During the war, women took over men's jobs (munitions, policing).

    • Representation of the People Act 1918: Women over 30 (with property) received the vote.

    • Equal Franchise Act 1928: All women over 21 received the vote, achieving equality with men.

THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914–1918)

  • Causes of War:

    • MAIN: Militarism (arms race), Alliances (Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance), Imperialism (scramble for Africa), Nationalism.

    • Short-term Spark: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo (28 June 1914) by Gavrilo Princip (Black Hand group).

  • Trench Warfare:

    • Features: Barbed wire, duckboards, fire steps, no-man's land (50\text{--}200\,\text{m} wide), and "over the top" attacks.

    • Health Hazards: Trench foot (rotting feet from cold/wet), lice, and shell shock (PTSD).

    • Weapons: Vickers machine gun (could fire 10\,\text{bullets per second}), heavy artillery (shrapnel), tanks (British "landships"), and poison gas (Chlorine/Mustard).

  • Global Impact:

    • Empire Contribution: Roughly 2,500,000 soldiers from the Empire fought for Britain (including 1.4\,\text{million} Indians). Medals won included over 150 Victoria Crosses.

    • Home Front: Defense of the Realm Act (DORA) gave government total control. Rationing introduced. Women joined the Land Army to farm.

    • End of War: Ceasefire signed 11 November 1918. Treaty of Versailles (1919) blamed Germany and demanded reparations of \pounds 6.6\,\text{billion}.

BETWEEN THE WARS: PROSPERITY AND DEPRESSION

  • The 1920s: Known as the "Roaring Twenties" for some (jazz, flappers, cinema). However, unemployment rose to 2\,\text{million} by 1921.

  • The General Strike (1926): Nine-day strike supporting coal miners facing pay cuts and longer hours. Ended in failure for the workers.

  • The Hungry Thirties: Triggered by the Great Depression in the USA (Wall Street Crash 1929). Areas relying on old industry (mining, shipbuilding) like Jarrow were devastated (2/3 unemployment). New industries (electric goods, cars) in the South thrived.

  • Irish Independence: After the Easter Rising (1916) and Anglo-Irish War, the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) divided Ireland into Northern Ireland (UK) and the Irish Free State.

POWER: DEMOCRACY AND DICTATORSHIP

  • Communism (USSR): Theory by Marx and Engels. State owns everything. 1917 Revolution led by Lenin; later ruled brutally by Stalin.

  • Fascism (Italy & Germany): Mussolini (1922) and Hitler (1933) took power. Believed in national superiority over equality. The Nazi state used the Gestapo (secret police) and Propaganda (Goebbels) to control the population.

  • Hitler's Rise: Exploited the Great Depression and anger over the Treaty of Versailles. Implemented policies of Lebensraum (living space) and antisemitism (persecution of Jews through Nuremberg Laws and Kristallnacht).

THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939–1945)

  • War Stages:

    • Blitzkrieg (lightning war) used to take Poland (Sept 1939).

    • Dunkirk (1940): Over 338,000 Allied troops rescued by small boats.

    • Battle of Britain (1940): RAF defeated the Luftwaffe, preventing invasion. Radar was a key technological advantage.

    • Operation Barbarossa (1941): Hitler invaded the USSR; stopped at Stalingrad (turning point).

    • The Holocaust: Systematic genocide of 6,000,000 Jews and other groups in death camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau.

  • End of War: D-Day (1944) led to the liberation of France. Germany surrendered May 1945. War in Pacific ended after nuclear bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945).

THE POST-WAR WORLD AND MODERN BRITAIN

  • Welfare State: Formed after the Beveridge Report (1942). Clement Attlee's Labour government created the NHS in 1948 (health for all, free at point of use).

  • The Cold War: Tension between USA (Capitalist) and USSR (Communist). Included the Berlin Airlift (1948), Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), and the Space Race (Moon landing 1969).

  • Decline of Empire: India gained independence in 1947 (Partition). Many African colonies (Ghana, Nigeria) gained freedom in the 1950s/60s. Formation of the Commonwealth.

  • Immigration: The Empire Windrush (1948) brought West Indian migrants. Migration from India, Pakistan, and Europe created a Multicultural Britain.

  • European Union: Britain joined the EEC in 1973; renamed the EU in 1993. Following a 52\% to 48\% referendum vote in 2016 (Brexit), the UK left the EU on 31 January 2020.

  • Modern Conflicts: Emergence of global terrorism (9/11 attacks in 2001), wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the Arab Spring (2010s).