The Constitution

Separatists and the Church of England: Certain groups were dissatisfied with the Church of England and sought a place to practice their religion freely.
Mayflower Compact: A compact established by the pilgrims that set the stage for governance based on the consent of the governed, a prototype for American governance.
- Established rule of law based on consent.
- Created a structured governance for peace and order.

British Policies: Post-1763, British Parliament passed laws managing the colonies as a unit mainly to raise revenue for the war debt from the French and Indian Wars (1756-1763).
Colonial Sentiment: Colonists, used to self-governance, viewed these actions as “taxation without representation.”
King George III: Seen as enforcing these unwelcome laws.

Formation of Congress: Colonies convened a congress to articulate their grievances.
- Delegates were sent to Philadelphia, focusing on restoring previous political structures.
- Actions included boycotting British trade and raising troops.
Historical Outcome: If the Crown had allowed more demands, the Declaration of Independence might not have been issued.

Context of Meeting: By May 1775, fighting had erupted between the British and colonists.
Actions Taken: Established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief.
Influence of Common Sense: Thomas Paine's pamphlet played a significant role in galvanizing support for independence.

Adoption: Ratified on July 4, 1776.
Influence of Philosophers: Thomas Jefferson was influenced by John Locke.
- Natural Rights: Life, liberty, pursuit of happiness.
- Social Contract Theory: Government's role is to protect these rights, with a right to revolt if it fails.
Significance: Established legitimacy of the new nation both internationally and domestically.

Views on Government: Some colonists wished for strong central governance while others, known as Republicans, were opposed to centralized power.
- They believed in state sovereignty over all.

Fears of Central Power: Reaction to political fears led to the creation of Articles of Confederation for a weak central government, established on March 1, 1781.
Definition: Confederation is a voluntary association of independent states with limited restraints.
State Power: Most powers were retained by states; local loyalties prevailed.

Congress Structure: One chamber; states had 2-7 members but only one vote. Most powers required approval of at least 9 states while amendments needed unanimous consent.
Committee of the States: Represented Congress between sessions.
Officers: Appointed by Congress to handle executive functions.

Dispute Resolution: Lack of central authority to resolve interstate disputes.
- Required organization for militia was critical to the Constitutional Convention.
Powers of Congress: Although it could declare war, Congress lacked the right to demand revenue; success depended on state approval.
Absence of a National Court System: Resulted in reliance on goodwill from the states.
Critical Weakness: Lack of power to raise funds for a militia was a fundamental issue leading to the Articles' replacement.

Impact of Rebellion: Highlighted the central government's inability to protect citizens from armed rebellion.
Outcome: Events like this showcased the need for a stronger central government.

Initial Meeting: Called by the Virginia legislature on Sept. 11, 1786, addressing key issues including powers of legislature and economic policies.
Result: Petitions led to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in May 1787.

Political Diversity: Delegates' beliefs ranged from monarchism (Hamilton) to decentralized republicanism.

Virginia Plan: Proposed a bicameral legislature, favoring larger states.
New Jersey Plan: Suggested amendments to the Articles with supremacy doctrine.
The Great Compromise: A bicameral Congress with representation based on population in one chamber and equal representation in another.
Three-Fifths Compromise: Each slave counted as three-fifths of a person for representation purposes.

Madisonian Model: Separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with checks and balances to prevent any one branch from overpowering others.

Key Features: Emphasized popular sovereignty, republican government, limited governance, separation of powers, and a federal system of governance.

Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists:
- Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution, fearing lack of personal liberties protections.
- Federalist Papers: 85 essays written to support the Constitution, with key theories on democracy from James Madison in Federalist #10 and #51.

Listed states according to their ratification dates and votes, showcasing the diverse responses across states from December 1787 to May 1790.

Concept: First ten amendments limited national governmental power over individual rights, adopted in December 1791.
Lack of Application: The Bill of Rights did not explicitly limit state governments.

First Amendment: Freedom of religion and expression.
Second Amendment: Right to bear arms.
Third Amendment: Restrictions on quartering soldiers.
Fourth Amendment: Protection against unreasonable searches.
Fifth Amendment: Rights concerning criminal procedures.
Sixth Amendment: Right to a speedy trial and legal counsel.
Seventh Amendment: Jury trial in civil cases.
Eighth Amendment: Protection against excessive bails and cruel punishments.
Ninth Amendment: Unenumerated rights retained by the people.
Tenth Amendment: Powers not delegated to the national government remain with states/people.

Purpose: To address new and unforeseen issues through a rigorous process that is not easily completed.

Proposal and Ratification Methods: Proposed by a two-thirds vote in both congressional chambers or a national convention. Ratified by legislatures in three-fourths of states or ratifying conventions in three-fourths of states.
Traditional Method: Most amendments follow this method; the 21st Amendment is a notable exception.

Listed various amendments, their subjects, years adopted, and time required for ratification, demonstrating the evolving nature of the Constitution.

Discusses ways the Constitution has changed through Congressional Legislation, Presidential Action, Judicial Review, and Interpretation, Custom, and Usage, showcasing the flexible nature of the government structure.