Notes on Origins of the Establishment of Israel and Broader Middle East Conflicts (Units 4–13)

4.1 Palestine between World War One and World War Two

• Britain made conflicting wartime promises to Arabs and Jews about Palestine during and after World War One. Arabs were promised a state in Palestine, and Zionist leaders sought to establish a Jewish homeland there. These dual commitments laid the groundwork for long-term tensions between the Arab population, Jewish settlers, and the British administration of the mandate.
• After World War One, Palestine became a League of Nations mandate under British administration. The British attempted to balance competing nationalist ambitions, but tension escalated as both Arabs and Zionists pressed to have their dreams realized.
• Violence and resistance escalated as both sides tried to shape outcomes:
  • Zionists sought to establish a secure, Jewish-inhabited state in Palestine — survival in their terms.
  • Arabs sought to limit Jewish settlement and keep Palestine from becoming a Jewish state.
• Anti-British resistance and British counter-measures
  • Arab and Jewish groups attacked each other and attacked British control targets.
  • The Arabs occasionally attacked Jewish newcomers, including ambushing ships and other actions aimed at stopping Jewish immigration and settlement.
  • In response, the British tightened control and turned back numbers of Jewish immigrants, which intensified resentment and violence.
• Militant Jewish groups emerged in reaction to British policies and Arab opposition:
  • Irgun and other militant organizations engaged in attacks on British targets (e.g., bridges, power stations) and raids on military camps.
  • The British faced increased violence and had to contend with armed Jewish underground activity.
• Arab reactions to increasing Jewish settlement and land purchases:
  • Palestinian Arabs were alarmed by Jewish newcomers buying homes and farms and began to resist more forcefully.
  • Rises in violence included attacks on Jewish settlers working in the fields.
• The 1936–1939 Arab revolt against British rule and Jewish settlement:
  • A large-scale uprising lasted until 1939, involving attacks on British bases and Jews. The British responded with force.
  • The British organized security measures and deployed soldiers to crush the rebellion.
• British attempts to manage immigration and population pressures:
  • In May 1939, the British government announced it would stop Jewish immigration to Palestine after five years.
  • Zionist leaders perceived this as betrayal by Britain and further intensified their push for immigration and state-building.
• After World War Two and up to 1945:
  • Thousands of Jewish refugees and concentration camp survivors sought to reach Palestine; international sympathy for Zionism grew, notably in the USA.
  • American President Truman proposed a policy to allow Jewish immigration to Palestine: $100{,}000$ Jewish immigrants were proposed to be admitted.
• The 1930s–1940s context reinforced a sense of urgency among Zionists to establish a viable state and the Arabs’ insistence on limiting Jewish influence in the land.
• The political landscape set the stage for renewed conflict after World War Two and the eventual UN intervention.

4.2 Palestine after World War Two

• Postwar conditions intensified pressure on Britain to resolve the Palestine problem, with increased Jewish immigration and growing Arab resistance.
• Source illustrates the impact of 1945–1946 events on Britain’s policy and international opinion:
  • International sympathy for the Zionist cause grew, particularly in the United States.
  • The British faced mounting liability and debt from the war, and could not sustain prolonged conflict in Palestine.
• 1945–1946 incidents included: Jewish terrorism/underground activity against British installations and personnel, and Arab resistance to British policy and Jewish settlement.
• The King David Hotel bombing (July 1946) symbolized the intensity of conflict.
  • The attack killed 91 people and increased international pressure against British governance in Palestine.
• UNSCOP and the UN role
  • In 1947, Britain handed the Palestine question to the United Nations due to the cost and inability to maintain control.
  • The UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) investigated the question, visited the Middle East, and gathered evidence from Arabs and Jews.
  • UNSCOP proposed ending the British mandate and partitioning Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international UN control.
• The UN Partition Plan and General Assembly action
  • The recommendation by UNSCOP led the UN General Assembly to adopt a partition plan.
  • In November 1947, the UN General Assembly voted in favor of partition, proposing two states and an international zone for Jerusalem.
• Immediate implications prior to statehood
  • Tensions and violence surged as both communities prepared for the end of the British mandate.
• Key terms:
  • United Nations (UN): The international organization established after World War Two to promote peace and security.
  • partitioned: divided into two or more parts.

4.3 The United Nations (UN) Partition Plan, 1947

• As Britain’s mandate ended, the UN aimed to resolve the Palestine question by partition:
  • Propose a Jewish state and an Arab state in Palestine.
  • Recommend that Jerusalem become an international zone under UN control.
• The UN Partition Plan and vote:
  • The plan was put to the UN General Assembly, and President Truman persuaded the UN to adopt it.
  • In November 1947, the UN voted in favor of partition.
• Aftermath and escalation:
  • The partition plan increased tensions between Jewish and Arab communities and set the stage for the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

5.1 The establishment of the state of Israel

• 14 May 1948: The British mandate in Palestine ended; Britain withdrew its soldiers.
• David Ben Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel in the part of Palestine allocated to the Jews by the UN Partition Plan.
• Territorial outcomes and maps:
  • Map 1 shows the proposed Jewish state under the UN Partition Plan of 1947.
  • Map 2 shows the land actually seized by Israel during the 1948 War.
• Leadership and early government:
  • Ben Gurion became Israel’s first prime minister.
  • Chaim Weizmann became the first president.
• Immediate regional reaction:
  • The surrounding Arab states — Egypt, Transjordan (which became Jordan), Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq — immediately declared war on Israel.
• 1949 cease-fire and territorial outcomes:
  • A UN-brokered cease-fire was established in 1949.
  • Israel expanded its territory beyond the UN‑designated borders.
  • Jordan controlled the West Bank; Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip and East Jerusalem; Jerusalem itself was divided.
• Palestinian displacement:
  • Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians were displaced or fled, becoming refugees in neighboring states and territories.
• Key figures and events:
  • The Zionist movement had prepared for a state during the British Mandate, contributing to the organization and readiness of the nascent state.
• Key terms:
  • diaspora: dispersion of a population from its homeland; refers to refugees and exiles.

6. The broader regional context: Arab nationalism and the region’s postwar landscape

7.1 The Pan-Arab movement and the Arab League (Egypt as leader)

• Postwar Arab unity and nationalism
  • The Pan-Arab movement sought political unity and cooperation among Arab nations.
  • The Arab League (formed in Cairo in 1945) aimed to promote Arab unity beyond individual states.
  • Founding members: Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen (ultimately other states joined to make 22 members today).
• Egypt as the leader of Pan-Arabism under Gamal Abdel Nasser
  • Nasser’s rise to power in 1952 positioned Egypt as the leader of Arab nationalism.
  • Egypt pursued modernisation and military strengthening and aimed to remove foreign influence in the region.
  • Nasser’s leadership elevated Pan-Arabism as a central ideal, and Arab unity became a strategic aim against Israel.
• Cold War context and competition for influence
  • The Cold War influenced nationalist struggles, with the US, Britain, and the USSR offering different forms of support.
  • Nasser used Western leverage and Soviet military support to bolster Egypt’s position.
• Key terms:
  • Pan-Arabism: A movement aiming at political union and cooperation among Arab nations.
  • secular: The opposite of religious; a non-religious approach to governance.

7.2 The Suez Crisis of 1956 (Suez Crisis)

• Origins:
  • Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal on 26 July 1956 to fund the Aswan Dam and assert control over a critical navigation route for Europe and Asia.
  • The canal was previously controlled by a company with significant British and French investment; Western assistance for the dam project was withdrawn, prompting a Western response.
• The 1956 military response:
  • Israel invaded the Sinai Peninsula and seized the Gaza Strip as a pretext for a broader operation.
  • Britain and France issued an ultimatum and then launched a military intervention to seize and control the canal.
• International response and outcome:
  • The United Nations condemned the Anglo-French aggression and called for a cease-fire.
  • Under international pressure, Britain and France were forced to withdraw their troops; Israel withdrew from the Sinai and Gaza by March 1957.
  • The Suez Canal remained Egyptian property; Nasser emerged as a hero of Arab nationalism and Egypt’s leadership in the Arab world solidified.
• Key terms:
  • ultimatum: a final demand or statement of terms, the rejection of which may lead to retaliation.

8. Syria and the broader Arab nationalist currents

8.1 Arab nationalism in the region: Syria

• Syria’s postwar trajectory
  • After World War One, Syria was under French mandate and became independent after World War Two.
  • Syria joined the 1948 Arab-Israeli War as part of the Arab coalition against Israel.
• Domestic political development
  • Syria became a totalitarian state with power concentrated in military leaders; the economy was mismanaged for the benefit of the elites.
  • The peasant majority remained poor, which contributed to appeals to Arab nationalism as a form of protest.
• Alignment with the USSR and the United Arab Republic
  • In 1956, Syria signed a military-technical agreement with the USSR for planes, tanks, and other equipment.
  • In 1958, Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab Republic (UAR), though the union dissolved in 1961.
• The Ba’ath Party and 1963 coup
  • The Ba’ath Party seized power in Syria in 1963, adopting pan-Arabist and anti-Israeli rhetoric and governance.
• Key terms:
  • Ba’ath Party: A political movement advocating Arab nationalism, unity, and socialism.

9. Jordan and the Arab-Israeli conflict

9.1 Arab nationalism in the region: Jordan

• Background and formation
  • Jordan originated from the Ottoman era and became a British-m Mandate state; it was known as Transjordan and gained independence in 1946.
  • King Abdullah was a moderate ruler with a pro-Western outlook and accepted the 1947 UN Partition Plan.
• Regional conflicts and expansion ambitions
  • Abdullah sought to rule a larger “Greater Jordan” that would include Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and the Palestinian territories; other Arab leaders saw this as a threat to their independence.
  • Abdullah joined the 1948 Arab-Israeli War as part of the Arab alliance against Israel.
• Assassination and succession
  • In 1951, King Abdullah was assassinated in Jerusalem; his grandson Hussein became king in 1952.
• Relations with Israel
  • Hussein’s government was ambivalent: anti-Zionist in rhetoric but pragmatic in practice and policy.
  • Hussein enjoyed Western associations (e.g., education in England) that shaped his stance.
• Peace and ongoing conflict
  • A formal state of war existed between Israel and Jordan from 1948 until 1994, when Jordan formally recognized Israel’s right to exist.
• Key figures and sources:
  • King Hussein and related sources show the pragmatic approach toward Israel despite ideological opposition.

10. The question of Palestine

10.1 Conflicting nationalist aspirations after 1948

• The ongoing conflict between Palestinian and Israeli nationalisms created increasing danger and destruction for both sides.
• Thematic observations on nationalism:
  • Nationalisms often exhibit tendencies toward extremism and xenophobia, self-righteousness, and demonization of the enemy.
  • History is frequently used to serve nationalist agendas, including convenient reinterpretations and falsifications.
  • The phrase "forging a nation" is commonly used in nationalist narratives, yet most nations can be viewed as constructed or forged in some sense.
• Source discussion: Avi Shlaim (The Guardian, 29 March 2003) discusses these patterns and invites comparison with Benedict Anderson’s concept of imagined communities (from Chapter 1, Unit 1).
• Key terms:
  • imagined communities: A concept describing nations as socially constructed communities imagined by people who believe they share a collective identity.

11. The refugee issue

11.1 Palestinian Refugees

• Post-1948 refugee phenomenon
  • The 1948 Arab-Israeli War created a long-term refugee crisis for Palestinians.
  • More than $1{,}000{,}000$ Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes and became refugees in neighboring Arab states.
  • Refugees fled for safety or were displaced due to battlefield dynamics and expulsions.
• Refugees outside Israel’s borders
  • Refugees lived in camps in neighboring countries and areas around Israel, including Egypt, Jordan, and Lebanon.
• UN response and the right of return
  • UN General Assembly Resolution $194$ (11 December 1948) demanded the return of all expelled Palestinians and called for free access to holy places, including Jerusalem.
  • Implementation of Resolution $194$ was a condition for Israel’s acceptance into the UN as a peace-loving nation in 1949; Israel has not fully implemented it.
• Distribution of refugees (illustrative map data)
  • The UN estimates show the distribution of Palestinian refugees among host states such as Jordan, the West Bank, Gaza, Syria, Egypt, and Lebanon; numbers reflect a large share in Jordan and the West Bank.
• Key terms:
  • UN General Assembly Resolution 194: Called for the return of refugees and access to holy sites.
  • refugee camps: Temporary or long-term living arrangements for displaced populations.

12. The 1967 War (Six-Day War)

12.1 Causes and outbreak of the war

• Tensions and pre-war moves (1967)
  • Nasser sought to consolidate Arab unity and used a three-step approach that increased tensions:
    1) Removal of UN troops from the Suez Canal zone (UN agreed).
    2) Closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping.
    3) Encouragement of Fatah raids from Syria (Golan Heights) and Jordan.
• Israeli pre-emptive action and rapid victory
  • In a brief conflict from 5 to 10 June 1967, Israel launched a pre-emptive strike and achieved a decisive victory.
  • The Israeli air force destroyed much of Nasser’s air power on the first day, enabling rapid advances into the Sinai and responses against Syria and Jordan.
• Territorial outcomes
  • Israel occupied the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, the Golan Heights, and East Jerusalem; Israel also extended control over the Gaza Strip from Egypt.
• Consequences for Arab nationalism
  • The war delivered a significant blow to Arab nationalist prestige and damaged confidence in pan-Arabist projects.
• Key terms:
  • Straits of Tiran: Waterway near the Sinai Peninsula; control of the straits affected Israeli access to the Red Sea.
  • Six-Day War: The 1967 conflict between Israel and surrounding Arab states.

12.2 Israeli occupation and territorial changes after 1967

• Post-war territorial map
  • Israel’s 1967 victories resulted in occupation of the Gaza Strip, Sinai, West Bank (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights.
• Political and strategic implications
  • The occupation created a long-lasting and contentious set of political and military realities that shaped subsequent conflict dynamics and negotiations.

13. Israeli and Palestinian responses to the 1967 war

13.1 Aftermath and evolving approaches

• Palestinian response and guerrilla activity
  • After 1967, Palestinians no longer expected the regular Arab armies to liberate Palestine; instead, support for guerrilla groups grew.
  • Al-Fatah emerged as the major Palestinian guerrilla organization; it advocated armed struggle against Israel.
• Leadership and the PLO
  • Yasser Arafat became closely associated with Al-Fatah and was elected leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1969.
  • The PLO was formed in Cairo in 1964 with support from Arab League member states (Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq) as a coordination platform for Palestinian resistance.
  • The PLO, initially recognized by many as a resistance group, later faced designation as a terrorist organization by the USA and Israel.
• Key terms:
  • guerrilla: An armed fighter operating outside a regular army, often engaging in irregular warfare.
  • PLO: Palestine Liberation Organization, formed to coordinate Palestinian resistance and political objectives.
  • Al-Fatah: The largest Palestinian guerrilla organization, associated with the leadership of Yasser Arafat.

14 (Summary and connections)

• The sequence from the British mandate to the 1967 war shows a clear pattern:
  • Conflicting nationalist promises during and after World War One contributed to long-term conflict.
  • The UN Partition Plan of 1947 provided a framework for state creation but also intensified hostilities.
  • Israeli statehood and subsequent wars reshaped borders, populations, and regional power dynamics.
  • Arab nationalism, led by leaders like Nasser, sought broader unity but faced setbacks, especially after the 1967 war.
  • Palestinian nationalism evolved from a focus on state-building within or alongside existing states to organized resistance with the PLO and Al-Fatah.
• Cross-cutting themes and implications:
  • The role of external powers (USA, USSR, Britain, France) in shaping outcomes.
  • The ongoing refugee issue and the right of return as central points of contention.
  • The persistence of a cycle of violence, counter-violence, and political maneuvering that continues to influence Middle East dynamics.

Key terms and concepts (glossary)

• United Nations (UN): International organization established after World War II to promote peace and security.
• partitioned: Divided into two or more parts, often to create separate states.
• Pan-Arabism: A movement aiming at political unity and cooperation among Arab nations.
• secular: The opposite of religious; governance not based on religious law.
• refugee: A person displaced from their homeland due to conflict, persecution, or violence.
• guerrilla: An armed fighter who operates outside a formal regular army.
• PLO: Palestine Liberation Organization, the umbrella Palestinian political and military organization formed to coordinate resistance against Israel.
• Al-Fatah: A Palestinian political and military organization founded in 1957, associated with Yasser Arafat.
• imaginary/imagined communities: Concept in nationalism describing nations as socially constructed communities imagined by their members.

Activity reference (Source TT discussion)

• Source TT (Avi Shlaim, The Guardian, 29 March 2003) discusses how nationalism can foster extremism and the manipulation of historical narratives for political aims.
• Students may compare Shlaim’s views with Benedict Anderson’s concept of imagined communities from Chapter 1, Unit 1 to understand differing perspectives on nationalism.

Notes on data and maps cited in the transcript

• Maps show proposed boundaries from the UN Partition Plan (1947) and territory seized in the 1948 war, illustrating the shift from proposed state borders to actual control after hostilities.
• Refugee distribution data (1948) illustrate the scale of displacement across neighboring states (e.g., Jordan, West Bank, Gaza, Syria, Egypt, Lebanon). UN Resolution 194 provides the framework for addressing refugees and access to holy sites, though implementation remains contentious.
• The 1956 Suez Crisis and the 1967 Six-Day War are pivotal events illustrating how regional dynamics, foreign influence, and military power shaped the Middle East in the mid-20th century.