Unit 1: Psychology as a Science - Foundations and Research Methods

Defining Psychology

• The Science of Psychology: Psychology is defined as a science that studies behavior along with the physiological and mental processes associated with that behavior.

• The Profession of Psychology: Beyond being a science, it is a profession that applies scientific findings to resolve practical problems.

• Symbolism: The field is commonly represented by the Greek symbol $\Psi$ (Psi).

Subfields of Psychology

Psychologists are distinguished by the basic questions they ask about behavior. They are employed in diverse settings such as academia, private practice, research facilities, government agencies, and sports stadiums.

• Diverse Specialties: The field is far broader than just therapy. Specific subfields include:

  • Behavioral neuroscience

  • Experimental psychologists

  • Cognitive psychologists

  • Developmental psychologists

  • Social psychologists

  • Sports psychologists

  • School Psychologists

  • Quantitative and measurement psychologists

  • Health psychologists

  • Counseling psychologists

  • Clinical psychologists

  • Community psychologists

  • Educational psychologists

  • Engineering psychologists

  • Environmental psychologists

  • Evolutionary psychologists

  • Forensic psychologists

  • Industrial/organization (I/O) psychologists

  • Rehabilitation psychologists

Workplace Environments and Professional Distinctions

• Primary Settings: Most psychologists work within academic settings (teaching, conducting research, or practicing) or in private practice.

• Roles of Practitioners:

  • Behavior Analysts: Focus on addressing specific behavior problems.

  • Industrial/Organizational (I/O): Work in business and industry; involved in Human Resources (HR), hiring, and training.

  • School Psychologists: Collaborate with parents, teachers, and students to improve student performance.

  • Counseling Psychologists: Deal with problems encountered in everyday life.

  • Clinical Psychologists: Diagnose, treat, and study more severe mental or emotional problems.

• Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist:

  • Psychiatrists: Are medical doctors (M.D.s) who diagnose and treat mental disorders. They have the authority to prescribe medications.

  • Clinical Psychologists: Typically hold a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree. They generally cannot prescribe medications.

• Employment for Psychology Majors: Common career areas include Social Services (behavior specialists, case workers, substance abuse), Education, Business, and Federal, state, or local government.

The Roots of Psychology

Psychological inquiry can be traced back to ancient Greece, though it was established as a formal discipline in the late 19th century.

• Philosophy’s Empiricism:

  • Definition: The belief that all knowledge is derived from experience.

  • Key Figures: John Locke and Thomas Reid.

  • Focus: Emphasis on experiencing the world through the observer’s senses (e.g., knowing which key opens a door because you have successfully used that key before).

• Physiology’s Contribution:

  • Helmholtz: Studied neural impulses and the physiology of hearing and vision.

  • Fechner and Weber: Developed Psychophysics, which is the study of the relationship between physical stimuli and the human perception of those stimuli. This formed the basis for the "new psychology."

The Birth and Early Schools of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): Known as the "Father of Psychology."

  • First Lab: Established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany.

  • Introspection: A method where the mind is trained to focus on deep, internal information. For example, when looking at a green apple, one must describe the internal experience rather than just stating it is "green."

• Structuralism:

  • Definition: Sought to describe the fundamental elements or "what" of conscious experience (anatomy of the mind).

  • Bradford Titchener: A student of Wundt who brought this experimental brand of psychology to America.

• Functionalism:

  • Definition: Emphasized the "how" and "why" of behavior and consciousness, focusing on the purpose of mental processes (physiology of the mind). It expanded to include the study of animals and children.

  • William James: Often associated with the "stream of consciousness" (thought as ever-changing, personal, and continuous). Wrote Principles of Psychology ($1890$).

  • G. Stanley Hall: Established the first American psychological lab ($1883$) and the first journal (American Journal of Psychology). Founded the American Psychological Association (APA).

  • James McKeen Cattell: Studied individual differences and eugenics (selective breeding for intelligence).

• Gestalt Psychology: Focused on the whole of an experience, following the principle that "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts." This served as a precursor to cognitive psychology.

Major Psychological Perspectives

• Neuroscience Perspective: Considers how humans and nonhumans function biologically, including heredity, evolution, and behavioral neuroscience.

• Psychodynamic Perspective (Sigmund Freud): Views behavior as motivated by inner forces and conflicts within the unconscious mind. Includes personality theory and psychotherapy methods.

• Behaviorism: Focuses exclusively on observable behavior that can be objectively measured, ignoring internal mental processes.

  • John B. Watson: Conditioned "Little Albert" to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise (hitting a pipe).

  • B.F. Skinner: Focused on operant conditioning and reinforcement (behaviors that are reinforced are repeated).

  • Ivan Pavlov: Known for classical conditioning (e.g., dogs salivating at a bell ringing, a learned response).

• Cognitive Psychology: Focuses on the "black box" of the mind, including how people think, understand, and remember (information processing).

  • Frederic Bartlett: Studied the use of past frameworks to understand new experiences.

  • Jerome Bruner: Studied sensation and perception.

  • Roger Brown: Studied "flashbulb memory" and the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon.

  • George Miller: Studied working memory and identified the "Magic Number Seven" plus or minus $2$ ($7 \pm 2$) as the limit for information held in working memory.

• Humanistic Perspective: Emphasizes free will and the ability of individuals to make their own choices to achieve self-fulfillment.

  • Carl Rogers: Developed client-centered therapy.

• Sociocultural Perspective: Focuses on the social and cultural context of behavior (influence of parents, friends, community).

  • Lev Vygotsky: Noted that social interaction is crucial for children to learn and behavior evolves in a sociohistorical context.

Key Issues in Psychology

Psychologists often debate five central tensions:

1. Nature vs. Nurture: Are we genetically determined (nature) or environmentally determined (nurture)?

2. Conscious vs. Unconscious: Are we aware of the sources of our behavior (e.g., taking a test) or unaware (e.g., pedaling a bike)?

3. Observable Behavior vs. Internal Mental Processes: Should focus be on what can be seen (Naturalistic Observation) or what must be measured indirectly (Reaction Time)?

4. Free Will vs. Determinism: Is behavior chosen by the individual, or is it determined by factors beyond our control?

5. Individual Differences vs. Universal Principles: Does behavior vary widely between people or do the same principles apply to everyone and all cultures?

Scientific Method and Research Ethics

• Scientific Method: A systematic approach to acquiring knowledge.

  • Steps: 1. Ask a question; 2. State a hypothesis; 3. Conduct an experiment; 4. Analyze results; 5. Make a conclusion.

  • Fact vs. Opinion: Facts are associated with the scientific method; opinions are associated with personal experience.

• Theories and Hypotheses:

  • Theory: Broad explanations and predictions (e.g., Diffusion of Responsibility).

  • Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction stemming from a theory (e.g., "If multiple bystanders are present, the likelihood of intervention decreases").

  • Operational Definition: Translating a hypothesis into specific, measurable, and testable procedures.

• Ethical Guidelines: Essential for protecting participants and maintaining integrity.

  • Informed Consent: Written documentation about the experiment.

  • Confidentiality: Keeping participant information secure from the public.

  • Privacy: Not observing participants in private places without consent.

  • Benefits over Risks: Weighing potential scientific gains against risks to participants.

  • Deception: Hiding the true nature of the study to prevent unnatural responses; requires debriefing after the study.

• Historical Ethical Violations:

  • Nazi Germany: Unethical "medical research."

  • Willowbrook State School (1960s): Children were intentionally infected with Hepatitis.

  • Tuskegee Syphilis Study: Participants were never informed they were in a study and were denied treatment.

Research Designs

• Descriptive Research:

  • Archival/Historical: Examining existing data (census, crime records, newspapers).

  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing naturally occurring behavior without intervening.

  • Surveys: Asking a series of questions. (Pros: Large numbers. Cons: Self-selection and false answers for social acceptability).

  • Case Study: Intensive investigation of an individual or small group (Con: Lack of generalizability).

• Experimental Research: Investigating the relationship between variables.

  • Independent Variable (IV): The variable changed or manipulated (the predictor).

  • Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured (the outcome).

  • Experimental Group: Receives the treatment.

  • Control Group: Receives no treatment; acts as a baseline.

  • Random Selection/Assignment: Ensures each member of a population has an equal chance of participation/group entry to account for similarity between groups.

  • Experimental Bias: Managed by double-blind procedures (neither researcher nor participant knows group membership) and placebos (addressing participant expectations).

  • Rosenthal and Fode Study: Students told they had "bright" vs "dull" rats reported performance differences that didn't actually exist, demonstrating the power of participant/researcher expectations.

• Correlational Research: Measuring patterns or associations between variables.

  • Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from $0$ to $1$; can be positive or negative.

  • Causation Problem: Correlation is NOT causation. A third variable ($Z$) might cause both $X$ and $Y$ (e.g., ice cream sales and shark attacks are both correlated with warm weather/summer).

• Quasi-Experimental Designs: Used when random assignment is impossible (e.g., studying existing groups like married people vs. single people).

• Longitudinal Studies: Following the same people over a long period (e.g., Rich ($2003$) followed $20,000$ German participants for $20$ years to study marriage and happiness).