AP World: Unit 7 & 8 - Chapters 11 & 12
The First World War: A European Crisis with a Global Impact, 1914 –1918
Origins: The Beginnings of the Great War
Modernization and Europe’s rise to global ascendancy had sharpened traditional rivalries between European states
Unification of Germany and Italy (1860s-1870s) added a new dimension to the rivalries - especially Germany, viewed as a threat by Britain, France, and Russia
Around 1900, the balance of power in Europe was shaped by two rival alliances, formed in the interest of national security and maintaining peace
Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Turkey)
Allied Powers (Russia, France, Britain, Serbia, Italy)
these alliances turned a minor incident into WWI
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand - heir to the Austrian-Hungarian (“A-H”) throne - on 6/28/1914
A-H wanted to crush the nationalism of Slavic peoples in the empire and was backed by the German Empire
Serbia was backed by Russia, self-proclaimed protector of Slavs, which in turn was backed by France & Britain
World War I broke out in August 1914
Other contributing factors (besides alliance system)
popular nationalism was propagated in society
widespread support for war and national unity
industrialized militarism meant newer, deadlier weapons
large national militaries, war plans made →10 million died
Europe’s colonial empires supported the war effort with troops, laborers, participation in local battles, revolts
Cause of WW1: M.A.I.N.
Militarism: Powerful military as bargaining voice, bragging rights and fulcrum to expansionist policy
Alliances: A war between two countries would soon involve their allies and become a bigger conflict
Imperialism: Acquire more colonies to..
further national security.
enhance national prestige.
obtain raw materials.
gain access to markets for manufactured goods.
Nationalism: Nationalist ideas started to grow within countries posing as a threat to other powers…
Many Slavs lived in the Balkans, in nation-states like Bosnia and Serbia.
Serbian nationalism inspired plans for creation of larger Serbian state (Serbia and Bosnia).
Austria-Hungary threatened by prospect of larger Serbian state south of its border.
1908 → Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia.
Many Slavs decided to set up secret societies → goal was to force Austria-Hungary out of Bosnia.
Russians were also Slavs → protective towards fellow Slavs in the Balkans.
Opposed to Austria-Hungary’s attempts to prevent spread of Serbian nationalism.
Outcomes: Legacies of the Great War
World War I shattered every expectations
expected to be a short war but went on for four years - ended with German defeat in November 1918
WWI became a total war with each participant country or colony’s population becoming mobilized
government’s power ↑↑↑ through control of economy
war socialism took place throughout Europe
massive propaganda campaigns aimed to arouse citizens by dehumanizing the enemy and showing offences against babies and women
labor unions accepted sacrifices for the common good
women worked in factories and temporarily gave up struggling for the vote
Widespread disillusionment among intellectuals
due to unprecedented casualties, even among elite and the well-educated, and physical destruction of France
questioned Enlightenment values of progress, tolerance, and rationality
led to questioning of the superiority of the West and its science and technology as being “good”
War brought social and cultural change
women urged to leave factory jobs to returning men
enormous casualties promoted social mobility
women increasingly won the right to vote (US, UK, etc.)
women flouted sexual conventions: flappers, smoking
a new consumerism emerged: cars, washers, vacuums
radio and movies became vehicles for popular culture
The map of Europe was rearranged along with empire
collapse of the German, Russian, A-H empires
creation of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, etc.
based on the principle of “self-determination” from Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
created new problems of ethnic minorities claiming the same principle
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed penalties on Germany → resentments by veterans → WWII
lost colonial empire and 15% of its European territory
required to pay heavy reparations to the winners
suffered restriction of its military forces
forced to accept sole responsibility for outbreak of WWI
Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire→ creation of Turkey
Armenian genocide committed by Ottomans against 1 mil Armenians - set a precedent later followed by the Nazis
modern map of the Middle East created - new Arab states of Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine
ruled as “mandates” for decades by the British and French
British promises to both Arabs and Jews created a new problem in Palestine which endures to modern day
in Asia and Africa, many gained military skills and political awareness - less respect for colonial powers
British promised beginning of self-governing for India
Japan gained previous German territory in China
motive for Chinese youth to become more revolutionary
United States became a new, global power
U.S. manpower /industry → defeat of German Empire
U.S. financial resources → creditor for European states
Europeans were fascinated by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and his ideas, including the Fourteen Points
transparency and morality behind a new world order
League of Nations, a new peacekeeping organization committed to “collective security” and avoiding war
Wilson’s vision largely failed
Germany treated much harsher than he wished
national self-determination was a struggle in Europe
gave colonies hope for independence → agitation
U.S. Senate refused to join the League of Nations
The Russian Revolution & Soviet Communism
WWI set the stage for beginning of global communism
political / philosophical roots of modern communism in 19th c. European socialism and teachings of Karl Marx
ideal of a peaceful revolution in a democratic society was not to be in Russia where democracy did not exist
the revolution occurred due to wartime oppression
pressure of WWI was the catalyst for the fall of Russia
male and female workers, military wives protested against gross incompetence of Russia’s elite
demonstrations, newspapers, plotting of revolution
Abdication of Nicholas II (1917) after losing all support
a Provisional government with representations from multiple political parties was created - stayed in the war
Massive social upheaval opened the door for Bolsheviks to seize power
mass desertion of Russian soldiers from the war
some workers seized control of factories
soviets spoke up for the common people
peasants seized landlords’ estates and redistributed lands among themselves
non-Russian nationalists (Ukraine, Poland, Muslim Central Asia, Baltic states) demanded greater autonomy or full independence
Lenin rose to power by advocating leaving the war and addressing the public’s concerns above
3-year civil war followed, leaving the Bolsheviks, who now called themselves “communists,” claiming victory
Bolsheviks fought against officials, landlords, regional nationalists, and foreign troops
claimed victory by 1921-renamed the country: the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR/Soviet Union)
Joseph Stalin came to power after Lenin’s death
socialist state to be built on modernization and industry
emphasized social equality and promotion of cultural values of selflessness and collectivism
Communist party dominated the political system
high ranking members enjoyed privileges but had to maintain socialist values and loyalty to Marxism
the party’s control over state was deemed “totalitarian”
other parties were forbidden
state controlled the economy as well as all elements of civil society and culture
collectivization of agriculture → built socialism in rural areas
small family farms incorporated into large collective farms between 1928-1933 for greater efficiency
Stalin persecuted rich peasants (kulaks) - killed or deported to remote areas of the USSR
urbanites sent to enforce were treated as outsiders
enforced collectivization → huge famine → 5 mil died (especially in the Ukraine)
rapid industrialization in cities
centralized planning included:
five year plans
priority to heavy industry
massive mobilization of all human and materials
during 1930s, ~0% unemployment
improvements in equality, literacy, education, social mobility for millions, rapid urbanization
exploitation of the countryside and ↑ in bureaucrats and technocrats
Conflict marred the communist society of the USSR
pre-revolutionary elites and high ranking communist officials who opposed Stalin’s harsh policies were called “enemies of the people” or “class enemies” - accused of conspiring with foreign imperialists to overthrow socialism for capitalism
The late 1930s saw the unleashing of Stalin’s Terror
Great Purges - persecution of tens of thousands of high level communists and millions of ordinary people based on suspicion, denunciatiations, connections to foreigners, bad luck
~1 million people executed in show trials (1936-41)
4-5 million sentenced to long, harsh years in gulags
Capitalism Unraveling: The Great Depression
Most influential post war change
Great Depression began with stock market crash of October 1929 and lasted through the 1930s
Thought by some to fulfill Karl Marx’s prediction
contracting stock prices wiped out paper fortunes
banks closed, with many losing their life savings
investments ↓↓↓ and businesses contracted or closed
world trade dropped by 62% within a few years
unemployment ↑↑↑ (25%+ in Germany/USA by 1933)
began in the USA after American economy boom
by the end of the 1920s, factories and farms produced more goods than could be sold at home or abroad
speculative stock market had driven stock prices up artificially high
Worldwide problem due to empire
stock market bubble burst in 1929 - ripple effects felt by nations tied to the US through debt, trade, funding
countries or colonies dependent on the export of a few products were hardest hit
French SE Asia: rubber export ↓↓ because sales of cars in Europe/USA dropped by 50%
British West Africa: price of cocoa ↓↓ as commodity prices dropped - wiped out local economy
Latin American value of their exports cut by 50%
governments sought to implement “import substitution”
in Mexico, the ideals of the Mexican Revolution were implemented: land redistribution, workers’ rights, nationalization of oil industry, etc.
Major challenge to industrialized governments
capitalist states espoused economic self-regulation
success of USSR’s economy was closely examined
some states turned to “democratic socialism,” with greater regulation of the economy and more equal distribution of wealth → ↑↑ power of the state
New Deal permanently altered the relationship between people, the economy, and the state
immediate programs of public speeding and long-term reforms, i.e. social security, minimum wage, subsidies
new degree of federal regulation and supervision
Nazi Germany and Japan coped the best with the Great Depression
Democracy Denied: The Authoritarian Alternative
European Fascism
new political ideology rose in Europe - 1919–1945
intensely nationalistic - revitalize and “purify” the race
exalted action, violence, charismatic leadership
against individualism, liberalism, feminism, parliamentary democracy, and communism
revolutionary: determined to overthrow existing regimes
conservative/reactionary: celebrated traditional values
Fascism appealed to dissatisfied people at all levels
upper/middle class, small-scale professionals, veterans and intellectuals
became important in Austria, Hungary, Romania, Spain
achieved major power in Italy and Germany
Fascism developed in Italy first
still industrially & democratically undeveloped in the 20s
social tensions exacerbated by economic crisis
many unhappy with lack of new land gain after WWI/ToV
Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) put together a private army, the Black Shirts, to use violence as a political tool
once in power, Mussolini built state power by suspending democracy and persecution of opponents
“corporate state” economy overseen by the state
Lateran Accords of 1929 agreement w/Catholic church
Women treated as domestic and mothers of citizens
Ethiopian invasion in 1935 - the win symbolized a “new Roman empire”
Hitler and the Nazis
German fascism took shape as the Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) - similar to Italian version
resented Treaty of Versailles
extreme nationalism, violence
one party dictatorship, charismatic leader
against parliamentarism, communism; proponent of war
Great Depression required decisive government action, which Hitler’s Nazi party delivered
Nazi Party gained 37% vote in 1932 election due to:
intense German nationalism based on racial superiority
opposed communism and was determined to bring back lost glory to Germany after the Treaty of Versailles
Hitler became chancellor in 1933 - Third Reich
outlawed other political parties, ended labor unions, arrested opponents, media came under state control
brought country out of depression by late 1930s
invested in infrastructure and rebuilding military
unemployment dropped from 6.2 mil to 500k in 5 years
Nazi popularity was also driven by racial revolution:
appealed to rural and traditional values through condemnation of Jews as urban, capitalist, foreign
continuation of centuries-old European anti-Semitism
policies enforced to restrict Jewish work, life, society
Nuremberg Laws (1935), Kristallnacht (1938)
mass killing only became a part of the plan with WWII
Nazis believed women’s place was in the home
promoted cult of motherhood (produce kids for the state)
opposed abortion, contraception, family planning, etc.
Nazis celebrated the superiority of the German race and its folk culture
rejected Enlightenment values, i.e. rationality, equality
embraced modern science (i.e. pseudoscience)
By 1940, some great states of Europe operated differently than at the turn of the century
USSR: state-controlled economy with 1 political party
Germany and Italy: replaced parliaments with authoritarian dictatorships overseeing the economy
individualistic liberalism was rejected in favor of a class identity (USSR) and a nation/race identity (Italy/Germany)
Japanese Authoritarianism
Similarities with Italy and Germany | Differences from Italy and Germany |
|
|
Japan seemed to move toward democracy (1920s)
expansion of education and suffrage
creation of an urban consumer society
greater individual freedoms, including for women
Tensions of modernization and industrialization ↑
“Rice Riot” of 1918 and union membership ↑↑↑
women’s movement demanded suffrage and end of legalized prostitution
Elites reacted with alarm to rising tensions
Great Depression paved way for authoritarianism
↓↓↓global demand for silk → millions of rural workers
↓↓↓Japanese exports → a million+ urban workers
rural farmers sold their daughters to urban brothels
many lost faith in the ability of a parliamentary democracy and capitalism to provide a solution
Revolutionary Right movement (Radical Nationalism) emerged, led by young army officers
leaders centered on emperor - emphasized imperialism
political parties were labeled as corrupt
anti-capitalist and anti-aristocratic privilege
believed nation was beholden to foreign powers
No fascist party or charismatic leader emerged
arrested people were not criminalized or terminated - instead they were “resocialized” in the Japanese way
established institutions, ideal of nation as a family with emperor at the head prevented rise of fascism
Shift in Japanese public life occurred in the 1930s
respect for the samurai warrior class persisted
the military became more dominant
free expression was increasingly limited
the government adopted many themes from the Revolutionary Right, i.e. natural vs. contractual relation-hip with the emperor
Popular support ↑ as the state brought Japan out of the Great Depression by 1937
↑↑↑ spending on armaments, public works projects
↑↑ government oversight of economic matters - mid-30s
private property ownership remained, as did zaibatsu
Japan less repressive than Germany or Italy
intellectuals had some influence despite censorship
political authority of generals and admirals ↑↑
few political prisoners were taken
racial purity was not directed against internal minorities
fierce empire-building was opposed by Great Britain and the USA, who had their own interests in the Pacific
A Second World War, 1937–1945
The Road to War in Asia
Japanese imperial ambitions ↑↑ in the 1920s & 1930s
China’s ↑↑ nationalism threatened Japan’s sphere of influence in Manchuria
separate military group seized full control in 1931
condemned by China, USA, and the League of Nations
Japan withdrew LoN to align with Germany and Italy
Japan attacked China in 1937 - WWII began in Asia
Japanese felt threatened by global condemnation
blamed non-acceptance as an equal power on the West’s innate racism (ex. anti-Japanese immigration)
heavily dependent on foreign resources (oil) from an increasingly hostile USA
hostile Western powers controlled SE Asian resources
communist Soviet Union loomed large in northern Asia
1940–1941: Japan launched conquest of European colonies (Indochina, Malaya, Burma, Indonesia, and the Philippines)
acquiring the resources found there would make Japan no longer dependent on Western nations
presented themselves as liberators to fellow Asians - “Asia for Asians”
the reality was highly brutal rule by the Japanese
December 1941: Japanese reluctantly attacked Pearl Harbor after negotiations with the USA failed
the US entered the war in the Pacific and dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945
Japan had allied with Germany and Italy = Axis powers
US entry joined the wars in the Europe and Asia
The Road to War in Europe
Nazis promised to rectify the injustices of Versailles
Most historians originate WWII with Germany’s planned aggression vs. European powers’ inaction
War desired by the Nazi leadership and Hitler
Hitler stressed the need for “living space” in E. Europe
1938: annexed Austria and the German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia
Britain and France reluctantly consented - this “appeasement” did not stop Germany
1939: Attacked Poland—triggered WWII in Europe
1940: France was quickly defeated and Germans launched air war against Great Britain
1941: Germany turned their war machine against USSR
By 1941, most of Europe was under Nazi control
Second World War was different from WWI
experience of the 1st muted enthusiasm for the 2nd
1st world war was bogged down by trench warfare
2nd world war saw Germans use the tactic of blitzkrieg - a coordinated, rapid movement of infantry, tanks, and airpower over large distances
Rapid victories resulted for Germany and its Italian allies throughout Europe, western USSR, North Africa
1942: USSR began counterattack and the US joined the war in Europe against the Germans
1944: US opened second front to take back France
1945: Hitler’s Germany was defeated by the Allies
Consequences: The Outcomes of a Second Global Conflict
WWII was the most destructive war in world history
Estimated deaths = ~60 million (50%+ were civilians)
result of new war technologies: heavy bombers, jet fighters, missiles, atomic weapons
total war: lines between civilian and military targets were blurred - whole cities defined as “the enemy”
40% of war dead belonged to the USSR
15 million deaths in China (and millions of refugees)
the Allies’ firebombed German and Japanese cities
atomic bombs vaporized people, long term radiation
significant psychological suffering was widespread
governments’ mobilization of economies, people, and propaganda reached further than ever before
More women were involved in WWII than WWI
worked in industry (USA, USSR, Germany, Japan)
100,000++ Soviet women served in the military
few women challenged the prestige of masculinity
The Holocaust was most haunting outcome of WWII
“final solution” within the context of the war
6+ million Jews killed in mass murder at death camps
millions of non-Jews who were considered inferior or dangerous also killed as part of racial purification
legacy of the Holocaust affected Western world
Christian and Enlightenment values failed to stop it
European Jews fled to Israel → Arab-Israeli conflict
new category for crimes against humanity: genocide
global balance of power shifted as Europe was left weakened, impoverished
its industrial infrastructure in ruins and millions of people homeless or displaced
by 1950, Europe was divided with the west under American umbrella and east within the Soviet sphere
weakened Europe could not hold on to its colonies
soldiers returning to colonies joined the calls for freedom
renewal of international efforts to maintain peace
United Nations (est. 1945) replaced League of Nations
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (est. 1945) - regulate the global economy, prevent another depression, stimulate economic ↑ in poorer nations
Communist Consolidation and Expansion: The Chinese Revolution
Soviet victory over Germany gave new credibility to the communist regime and its leader, Joseph Stalin
he oversaw expansion of communism in E. Europe
except Yugoslavia, which had a homegrown communist movement against Nazis and defeated them on their own
Communism spread to Southeast Asia
Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh utilized socialism and nationalism to defeat the French and later, Americans
spread from there to neighboring Laos and Cambodia
Chinese Revolution of 1949 - second expansion of communism (after Russia) after decades of war and internal upheaval following fall of Qing Dynasty (1911)
small Chinese Communist Party was founded in 1921 to organize the small urban working class
charismatic leader, Mao Zedong, grew the party
fought the Guomindang (in power since 1928) and then the Japanese - CCP emerged victorious in 1949
rural poor didn’t benefit from the limited progress taking place in urban areas under the Guomindang → rural peasants shifted allegiance to the CCP during the 1930s
women were drawn to the CCP in large numbers
they gained rights re: marriage, divorce, suffrage, property ownership, literacy
its male members demanded these rights be modified
Japanese invasion of China change internal dynamics
overtook Guomindang control over most of China
CCP membership ↑↑ from 40k (1937) to 1.2 mil (1945)
used guerrilla tactics against Japanese invaders and provided support to the Chinese people
reduced rents, taxes, interest payments for peasants
taught literacy and allowed women to mobilize
rallied poor peasants to face off against landlords
corrupt Guomindang focused more on eliminating the communists than fighting the Japanese
CCP won support by fighting foreign imperialism and landlord’s exploitation of peasants
Guomindang fled to Taiwan in 1949
Chapter 11 Conclusions
I. World War I (1914–1918)
Origins: Imperial rivalries and a rigid alliance system (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente).
The Spark: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914) turned a local Balkan conflict global.
Nature: A "total war" of industrialized killing, trench warfare, and mass propaganda; 10 million died.
Outcomes: Collapse of four empires (German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian) and the rise of the U.S. as a global creditor.
Treaty of Versailles: Punished Germany harshly, fueling future resentment.
II. The Russian Revolution & Stalinism
Revolution (1917): WWI's strain collapsed the Tsar’s regime; Lenin and the Bolsheviks seized power.
Stalin’s USSR: Enforced collectivization (causing massive famine) and rapid industrialization.
The Terror: Millions executed or sent to gulags during the Great Purges of the 1930s.
III. The Great Depression & Rise of Fascism
The Crash (1929): Global trade plummeted; unemployment hit 25% in the U.S. and Germany.
Fascism: Mussolini (Italy) and Hitler (Germany) offered radical nationalism and stability over failing democracy.
Nazism: Hitler used the Depression to gain power, rebuilding the military and stripping Jews of rights via the Nuremberg Laws.
Japan: Moved toward authoritarianism and "Radical Nationalism" centered on the Emperor.
IV. World War II (1937–1945)
Path to War: Japanese aggression in China (1937) and Hitler’s invasion of Poland (1939).
The War: Characterized by Blitzkrieg, total mobilization of women, and 60 million deaths (mostly civilians).
The Holocaust: The systematic genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of others.
Post-War: Europe was left ruined and divided (Cold War); the United Nations was established.
V. The Chinese Revolution (1949)
Mao Zedong: The CCP gained peasant support by fighting Japanese invaders while the Nationalists (Guomindang) floundered.
Victory: In 1949, the CCP took control of mainland China, marking the second major global expansion of Communism.
<><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><><
Recovering from the War
European recovery
Europeans between 1950-present
rebuilt industries, revived democratic political systems
greatly recovered by 1960 amid a global economic boom w/ European Economic Community (EEC)-1957
↓ tariffs, set up common trade policies among members
membership continued to ↑↑ → European Union in 1993 with common currency by 2002 among 12 members
U.S. was the new global superpower after 1945
Marshall Plan supported economic recovery, create markets for US goods, prevent spread of communism
fear of new aggression from Germany or communist threat → political/military alliance called North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949
the US committed to defend Europe against the USSR
Japan’s progress paralleled that of W. Europe
American occupation (1945-52) imposed a democratic constitution with war potential limited
relied on the US for military security
industries were revived → economic giant by 1970
Soviet Union was badly damaged by German assault
Stalin ruled harshly until 1954, tolerating no dissent
grew the convict labor force to 3-4 million
provided cheap source of labor for recovery
industry focused on heavy industry, agriculture, and military instead of necessary consumer goods
reduced price of bread and other essentials
seized industries/resources from Germany/Poland as spoils of war for devastation of human/capital in WWII
Communism Chinese-Style
Building a Modern Society
China followed USSR’s socialist modernization, but:
collectivization of agriculture (1950s) - mostly peaceful due to relation of peasants with Communist Party
China created massive “people’s communes” for rapid development, social equality, collective way of life
China’s industrialization program was likewise modeled on the early Soviet experience
emphasis on large-scale heavy industry/urban factories
centralized planning by the communist party/state
large bureaucracy for management of the economy
women were mobilized to further development
large scale migration to the cities took place
technical workers eventually favored over peasants → Mao tried to fix this to preserve revolutionary fervor
Mao implemented Great Leap Forward (1958-1960)
his 1st response to the individualism, careerism, urban bias that derived from Soviet-style industrialization
he tried to grow both agriculture and industry together
small-scale industrialization was pushed in rural areas instead of large scale industrialization in cities
ex. backyard furnaces for farmers to make steel
private property was abolished - all basic services, incl. education and health, came from the communes
result: CHAOS & worst famine in history (30 mil dead)
Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (mid-1960s)
Mao’s effort to combat capitalist tendencies in the CCP
health care and education to countryside; re-start rural industrialization with local control
Eliminating Enemies
Mao called for rebellion against the Communist Party
like Stalin, Mao conducted a large search for enemies starting in the mid-1950s - replaced officials deemed less dedicated to revolutionary socialism
became a public hunt during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1969)
millions of young people, set up as Red Guards, responded by attacking officials, teachers, other “enemies,” who were given hard labor, sent to the rural areas, humiliated, beaten, even killed
violence from rival groups threatened a civil war
Mao used military to restore order and CCP control → like Stalin’s Terror, CR discredited revolutionary socialism → it collapsed by century’s end
East versus West: A Global Divide and a Cold War
Military Conflict and the Cold War
Europe was the cold war’s first arena
Soviet concern for security & control in Eastern Europe
American and British desire for open societies linked to the capitalist world economy
creation of rival military alliances
NATO (1949) - defend against Soviet aggression
Warsaw Pact (1955) - prevent Western influence in the communist bloc
American sphere of influence (W. Europe) - voluntary
Soviet sphere (E. Europe) - imposed
a metaphorical “Iron Curtain” divided the two spheres - but there was heavy fortification too
Berlin was a hotspot of tensions
communism spread into Asia-globalized the Cold War
caused destructive “hot wars” aka “proxy wars”
Soviet and Americans didn’t directly fight each other
North Korean communists invaded South Korea in 1950 - Chinese and American forces ended up facing off in the Korean War→ result: country remained divided
Vietnam War: massive U.S. intervention in the 1960s against Vietnamese communists backed by USSR & China→ result: whole country fell to communism in 1975
Conflict in Afghanistan was a major event
Marxist party took power in 1978 but alienated much of the population through radical land reforms, liberation of Afghan women in an otherwise conservative country
Soviet military intervention (1979–1989) met with little success → result: USSR withdrew in 1989 under international pressure; communist rule of Afghanistan collapsed
Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962)
Fidel Castro took in early 1960s - Americans angry, so
Khrushchev sent nuclear missiles to Cuba with the goal of deterring U.S. action against Castro → for 13 days, Soviet Union and the USA were at the brink of war
Last minute compromise: U.S. promised to not invade Cuba if the USSR removed the nuclear weapons from Cuba; result: Cuba remained under communist control
Nuclear Standoff and Third-World Rivalry
Cuban Missile Crisis demonstrated the danger of the an arms race in nuclear weapons
USA had first monopoly in arms post-WWII (1945)
USSR joined in by detonating their first bomb (1949)
global arsenal = 60,000 warheads with complex delivery systems by 1989
Both sides understood that the use of nuclear bombs would end the world, so they avoided:
nuclear provocation, especially after 1962
any direct military confrontation (but still build arsenals)
the United States and the USSR courted third-world countries → opportunities for conflict
utilized military & economic aid, educational opportunities, political pressure, and covert action
USSR aided decolonization & revolutionary movements in S. Africa, Mozambique, Vietnam and Cuba
United States intervened in Iran, the Philippines, Guatemala, El Salvador, Chile, the Congo, and elsewhere because of fear of communist penetration
the USA also supported corrupt, authoritarian rulers
several countries (e.g., India, Ghana) labeled themselves as “non-aligned” in the cold war, while playing the superpowers against each other (e.g. Egypt-Aswan Dam)
The Cold War and the Superpowers
U.S.A.-leader of the West vs. communism, post-WWII
by 1970, more than 1 mil US soldiers were present in 30 countries-military/economic aid given to 100 countries
sustained by economy and increasing middle class
no physical destruction on own soil during WWII
most productive economy in 1945 while those of Europe, USSR, and Japan were in ruins
Communist state turmoil
Stalin’s crimes came to light in mid-1950s
reform movements in Hungary (1956–1957), Czechoslovakia (1968), Poland (early 1980s) against Soviet-dominated communist governments
Growing conflict among communist countries
Yugoslavia became communist without Stalin’s help
Soviet invasions of Hungary (1956–1957) and Czechoslovakia (1968) to crush reform movements
brutal suppression of reform tarnished the image of Soviet communism, gave credence to Western views of the cold war as a struggle between tyranny and freedom
the USSR & China almost went to war when the Chinese developed their own nuclear program after the USSR reneged on a promise to help China
China went to war against a communist Vietnam in 1979
Vietnam invaded communist Cambodia, late 1970s
world communism was at its height in the 1970s
Toward Freedom: Struggles for Independence
Struggle for decolonization
While the superpowers played out the Cold War, Asia & Africa focused on colonial rule, subordination, poverty, racism through a decolonization process
millions mobilized to political activity, violence, warfare
signalled the declining legitimacy of empire and race
promise of freedom, dignity, opportunity, prosperity
First independence breakthroughs came in the late 1940s: Philippines, India, Pakistan, Burma, Indonesia, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Israel achieved independence
1950s-1970s: 50+ African colonies
1970s: 5+ Pacific Oceania island societies
1960s-1983: 16 separate independent island states
Cuba was independent in 1902 but rejected US (1959)
The End of Empire in World History
End of empire was linked w/ nationalism this time
not comparable to historical imperial ends, except for the American colonies achieving independence
new nations claimed to be equal in international status to their former rulers
difference with American colonies - people agitating for freedom in Asia and Africa were not European
Empires that fell in the 20th century → new states in Europe and the Middle East
Austrian and Ottoman empires after WWI
Russian empire (soon reassembled under Soviet Union)
German and Japanese empires with WWII
national self-determination idea started to grow, gain global acceptance in twentieth century
Empires without territory also came under attack
the U.S.’s influence in Latin America
was a cause in the Mexican Revolution (1910) → nationalization of the Mexican oil industry in 1937
Soviet domination in Europe was challenged
Eastern European revolutions of 1989
disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the last major territorial empire of 20th c. → birth of 15 new states
China’s Central Asian empire persisted despite some internal challenges (e.g. Tibet)
Toward Independence in Asia and Africa
Why the rapid collapse of European colonial empires?
basic contradictions existed within the entire enterprise:
Christianity, Enlightenment, progress were contradictory to colonial racism, exploitation, and poverty
democratic European state values and national self-determination went against colonial rule realities
Various developments → decolonization post-WWII
2 world wars weakened Europe → tarnished “superiority”
the new superpowers (U.S. and USSR) were opposed to older European colonial empires (used United Nations to support anti-colonial agitation)
European colonies were vulnerable without local elites or educated Westerners to support them
Social/economic factors for anticolonial movements
2nd/3rd generation educated elites didn’t see empire as the path to progress–< insisted on immediate freedom
commoners ↑↑↑ receptive to this idea (i.e. veterans; educated young people; exploited workers; migrants)
Colonial rulers on the defensive, prepared for the end of empire
they still wanted to maintain lucrative economic links with the new countries → planned for political reform, investments in railroads/ports/telegraph lines, elections, constitution writing to support trade with Europeans
Took lots of pressure from nationalist movements for the reforms and independence to finally occur
Nationalist movements
mostly male leaders drawn from the educated few, who
organized political parties, recruited, planned strategy, developed ideas, negotiated with colonial state
some became the “fathers” of the newly independent country (ex. Mandela - South Africa, Nkrumah / Ghana, Ho Chi Minh - Vietnam, Sukarno - Indonesia)
some directed military, administered to liberated areas in settler-dominated colonies (i.e. Algeria, Kenya)
nationalist leaders sought to become like other independent nation-states:
join the United Nations as members
gain wealth/power from modern technologies
Leaders had to recruit followers
for example, Gandhi’s millions of nonviolent followers and tens of thousands of freedom fighters in Kenya
Alliances of oppressed people were fragile, incohesive
tensions with one another re: leadership, power, ideology, wealth distribution, ethnic division (ex. Nigeria)
Indian National Congress leader Mahatma Gandhi rejected industrialization, lieutenant Nehru embraced it as necessary for India’s future success
Gandhi was nonviolent, held everyone equal, tried to improve position of women and untouchables; some thought these efforts distracted from independence
Divisions existed regarding participation in colonial-sponsored legislatures before independence
Hindu/Muslim divide was most serious threat to Indian unification
Muslims felt most Hindus were not inclusive like Gandhi
ex. nationalist struggle was cast in Hindu religious terms
Muslim League was the voice for Muslim self-rule
Mohammed Ali Jinnah advocated for a distinct political status and a separate homeland for Muslims where a majority existed - Pakistan
Reluctantly, India Congress Party agreed to partition
in 1947, the British Raj was divided into East and West Pakistan (Muslim) and India (mostly Hindu)
Partition process was destructive and violent
12 million refugees moved between the new countries
Varying characteristics of movements
independent in years (Congo) or decades (Vietnam)
South Africa was distinct in its experience
20% of the population (white minority) had gained independence from Great Britain in 1910
until 1994, majority non-white population kept fighting for “independence” from apartheid and exploitation
peaceful political pressure (West Africa) or armed struggle (Algeria or Angola)
Different ideologies drove call for independence
religious perspective (India, Islamic world, Indonesia)
Marxism (Indonesia) or communism (Vietnam, China)
racial equality (most countries in Africa)
After Freedom
China, Thailand, Ethiopia, Iran, Turkey, Central/South America - aka “third world” or the Global South
Common conditions for creating new political order
exploding population vs. available resources
diverse cultures had limited loyalty to the central state
↑↑ public employment as state took control of economy
in countries with massive poverty, groups or individuals seized opportunities to gain wealth/power
New political systems ranged in ideologies:
Communist Party control (Vietnam) to multi-party democracy (India) to 1-party democracy (Mexico) to military regimes (Middle East) to dictatorships (Uganda)
also a variety of the above, sometimes in succession
Europeans had established democratic institutions in many colonies before colonial rule ended
Western-style democracy worked best in India
in the new states of Africa, multiple political parties and democratic institutions were wiped away by military coups and/or degenerated into corrupt personal tyrannies or “Big Man” dictatorships
Military takeovers in 30/46 states in Africa by early 1980s - actively governed 15 of those states
conflicts arose due to economic disappointments, class resentments, ethnic conflicts
promised to return power to the people some day
Multiple military interventions in Latin America in 1960s and 1970s (incl. Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Chile)
compared to Africa, military rule was the norm for much of their history since independence from Spain/Portugal
ethnic conflicts were rare but class conflicts persisted
Latin American societies were more modern/urban than Africa but lived under the United States’ shadow
Globalization of democracy in the late 20th century
popular movements, multiparty elections, new constitutions in many nations, i.e. Spain, Portugal, Greece
Latin American, African, and Asian states abandoned authoritarian governments for democracy
Globalization of democracy in the late 20th c. - cont’d
mass movements began, i.e. Arab Spring, against authoritarian rulers - Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Syria, Yemen
democracy was increasingly viewed as universal principle
vehicle for social protest against corrupt authoritarian governments that failed to fix economic situations
growth of civil society and grassroots movements
some leaders turned authoritarian or corrupt in office
ex. Chavez, Putin, Erdogan curbed parliamentary power
election fraud prevailed; elites & oligarchies kept power
democratic movements were crushed (China) or → civil war (Syria, Yemen) or brought back ex-military strongmen
right wing populist parties ↑ in Hungary/Poland by 2020
U.S. capitol assault to undermine election results in 2021
The End of the Communist Era
End of Communism
Demise of global communism in late 20th c.
ended the cold war (temporarily)
lessened threat of a nuclear war
birth of ~20 new nation-states
peaceful process in general
Steps to the end in three Acts:
Act 1: post-Mao Zedong in the 1970s
CCP moved away from Mao’s communism but retained control of the nation
Act 2: Eastern Europe in 1989 “miracle year”
popular movements toppled communist governments
Act 3: Collapse of the USSR on Christmas, 1991
good faith political reforms paved the way to the end
Failures of communism
Economic stagnation
communist governments by 1970s lagged behind capitalist countries - USSR especially stagnant
USSR: consumers stood in long queue for consumer goods of low quality and ↓ availability
lagging economy, more than military capacity, shows state’s weakness
Moral failure
Stalin’s Terror& gulag, Mao’s Cultural Revolution, genocide in Cambodia → undermined communists’ claim of moral superiority to capitalism (while rest of the world was embracing democracy and human rights)
Leaders in China/USSR actively tried to avoid ↓↓↓
Beyond Mao in China
Deng Xiaoping became leader of China after Mao
replaced collectivized farming with small scale private farms → Chinese peasants pushed this opps further
slow industrial reform
great authority to state managers to act like private owners, ability to make decisions and profit
special enterprise zones with foreign investment welcomed with tax breaks, etc.
township and village enterprises joined together to produce food, clothing, building materials, etc.
Reform outcome was marvelous economic growth
huge economic growth → challenge USA in 21st c.
better prosperity for millions
better diets, ↓mortality & poverty, ↑↑exports
Downside to reforms
massive corruption among officials
regional inequalities (between coastal and interior areas)
urban overcrowding
city pollution
periodic inflation as state lessened control over economy
urban vices surfaced again for first time after 1949 (street crime, prostitution, drugs, criminal underworld)
China’s Communist Party “took the capitalist road”
CCP unwilling to promote democracy nationally nor relinquish political monopoly
Tiananmen Square demonstration crushed in late 1980s
The Collapse of the Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev led the USSR since mid-1980s
like Deng, MG committed to tackle economic stagnation, black market, public apathy, mistrust of the CP
perestroika (restructuring) program launched in 1987
state enterprise freed from heavy government regulation
small-scale private businesses (cooperatives) permitted
private farming opportunity
cautiously welcomed joint enterprises with foreigners
glasnost (openness) allowed new cultural, intellectual freedoms
news/TV exposed vices in Soviet society (crime, etc.)
buried plays, poems, films, novels emerged
USSR history reexamined with news of Stalin’s crimes
Bible/Quran/church/mosque open to the public again
spread of atheist propaganda by government ceased
Gorbachev initiated political reforms
democratization and new parliament with real powers and elections - many communists rejected at the polls
moved to end the cold war with military cuts, arms controls negotiations with U.S., not intervening as other
Eastern European communist governments were toppled
Gorbachev’s intention to strengthen communism led to the weakening and eventual collapse of the USSR
planned economy was dismantled before a market based economy could replace it
inflation grew but few consumer goods to buy
ration coupons reappeared, many feared unemployment
little private farming interest among Soviet farmers
little foreign investment interest in a falling state
Democracy movement emerged seeking multi-party government and market-based economy
joined by labor unions that went on strike for 1st time
Nationalist movements emerged for the different countries in the Soviet Union, seeking ↑ autonomy or independence
Eastern Europe (Soviet satellite nations) took advantage of Gorbachev’s reforms within Russia
glasnost and competitive elections → miracle year-1989
Poland’s Solidarity labor union (est. 1980) fought for workers rights with support from the Pope and the U.S. → election of Lech Walesa (founder of Solidarity)-1990
elsewhere, massive demonstrations, last minute reforms, breaching of the Berlin Wall, new political groups, and more overwhelmed E. Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, etc.
Success of democracy in Eastern European countries motivated nationalists and democrats in the USSR
Soviet conservatives, patriots outraged at Gorbachev’s “treason” at losing gains of WWII
Military coup (Aug. 1991) to return communism failed
led to end of the Soviet Union and it’s communist regime
15 newly independent states emerged as the USSR ceased to exist (Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, etc.)
Gorbachev’s inability to address problems more of a reason for collapse than the internal problems
world’s largest state, last territorial empire fell
1st communist party, powerful command economy fell
E. European countries joined NATO, European Union
ethnic discord erupted (Yugoslavia, Chechens, Uighurs)
After Communism
Communist world by 21st century basically dead
post-1991, Russia’s economy ↓↓, poverty and inequality ↑↑, life expectancy ↓ until 2006, trends started to reverse
China abandoned communist economic policies, embraced market economy → ↑↑↑ growth, 2nd largest economy by 2010
Vietnam, Laos, Cuba remained communist but carefully followed Chinese-style economic (not political) reforms
Cuba/U.S. re-established relations in 2015
only North Korea remained unreformed and repressive
Era of global peace did not materialize because the Great Powers remained rivals
USA was the world’s sole superpower but its global dominance is constantly challenged by Russia & China
International era of peace did not materialize because the Great Powers remained rivals (cont’d)
Russia’s Putin resented fall of the USSR and its international status as well as US/Western efforts to “threaten” Russia’s security in Europe
westward expansion of NATO to Russia’s borders, incl. the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania)
Ukraine embraced Western-style democracy and desired NATO membership - Russia invaded in 2022 (had previously annexed the Crimea in 2014)
Putin’s desire to reimplement Russian sphere of influence → return of cold war-era hostility with the USA
China’s growing military and economic power, generated tension with U.S. and Japan
remarkable economic growth → would 21st century be the “Chinese century” (20th c. = the “American century”)
hosted 2008 & 2022 Winter Olympics (global influence)
3rd largest military behind USA and Russia
geopolitical presence in Asia → new Great Power
Belt & Road Initiative (“New Silk Road”) launched 2013
agreement of 125 countries for an array of roads, railways, ports, energy pipelines stretching across Eastern Hemisphere and Latin America
Instability and conflict in the Middle East
ongoing wars, upheavals since creation of Israel in 1948
Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Egypt, USA, others drawn into this Israeli-Palestinian conflict
Instability and conflict in the Middle East (cont’d)
Iranian Revolution of 1979 brutally replaced 2k+ years of Persian monarchy with a theocratic Shi’ite republic
radical Islamist government in Iran, threat to Israel
decade long bloody war with Iraq (aggressor) beg. 1980
rivalry with Saudi Arabia for dominance in Middle East
2015 international agreement to halt nuclear capability (but USA withdrew in 2018 - Iran restarted program)
Terrorist attacks by radical Islamist groups ↑↑
Taliban (Afghanistan), al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, ISIS
random, unpredictable, target civilians → fear, insecurity
Embassy bombing, World Trade Center 9/11/2001 → military intervention/war in Afghanistan and Iraq → US military withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021) signalled failure of 20 year policy of “nation building”
Instability and conflict in the Middle East (cont’d)
Iranian Revolution of 1979 brutally replaced 2k+ years of Persian monarchy with a theocratic Shi’ite republic
radical Islamist government in Iran, threat to Israel
decade long bloody war with Iraq (aggressor) beg. 1980
rivalry with Saudi Arabia for dominance in Middle East
2015 international agreement to halt nuclear capability (but USA withdrew in 2018 - Iran restarted program)
Terrorist attacks by radical Islamist groups ↑↑
Taliban (Afghanistan), al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, ISIS
random, unpredictable, target civilians → fear, insecurity
Embassy bombing, World Trade Center 9/11/2001 → military intervention/war in Afghanistan and Iraq → US military withdrawal from Afghanistan (2021) signalled failure of 20 year policy of “nation building”
Terrorist attacks by radical Islamist groups ↑↑ (cont’d)
European, Russian, and Islamic cities also targeted
most victims claimed is in Middle East
extremists claim to attack “corrupt, un-Islamic” regimes
has led to intense backlash against Islam and Muslims
refugees from war-torn areas head elsewhere
Syrian civil war created 12+ mill refugees in 2011-16→1 mil to Europe, 5 mil to Turkey, 6.5 mil displaced in Syria
US, Russia, Muslim government took sides
Iran/Saudi Arabia rivalry (Persian/Arab, Shia/Sunni)
Continued conflicts-India/Pakistan/N.Kore/neighbors, China/Taiwan- all have nuclear weapons (not Taiwan)
East/West struggles of Cold War replaced by tension between Global North nations and Global South nations
global military spending ↑↑ since 2001 (USA #1 spender)
Chapter 12 Conclusions:
I. The Failures of Communism
By the late 20th century, the communist project faced a double crisis that undermined its legitimacy:
Economic Stagnation: Communist economies lagged behind the West. The USSR suffered from long queues, low-quality goods, and a declining ability to provide for its citizens.
Moral Failure: Atrocities like Stalin’s Terror, the Cultural Revolution, and the Cambodian genocide destroyed the claim of "moral superiority" over capitalism, especially as the rest of the world embraced human rights.
II. China’s "Capitalist Road"
Under Deng Xiaoping, China chose to reform its economy while keeping its political iron grip:
The Reforms: Replaced collective farms with private ones, created "Special Economic Zones" for foreign investment, and gave state managers more autonomy.
The "Economic Miracle": These changes led to massive growth, better diets, and lower poverty, turning China into the world’s second-largest economy by 2010.
The Downside: Reforms brought corruption, pollution, regional inequality, and "urban vices" (crime, drugs).
Political Monopoly: The CCP refused to democratize, famously crushing the Tiananmen Square protests in the late 1980s.
III. The Collapse of the Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to save the USSR through "good faith" reforms that backfired:
Perestroika (Restructuring): Attempted to introduce market elements but dismantled the planned economy before a new one was ready, leading to inflation and rationing.
Glasnost (Openness): Allowed freedom of speech, which led to the exposure of past crimes, the return of religion, and the rise of nationalist movements.
The "Miracle Year" (1989): Popular movements (like Solidarity in Poland) toppled communist regimes across Eastern Europe. The Berlin Wall fell, and Gorbachev chose not to intervene militarily.
The End (1991): After a failed conservative military coup, the USSR dissolved into 15 independent states (Russia, Ukraine, etc.).
IV. The Post-Communist World & Modern Rivalries
The "Global Peace" expected after 1991 never fully arrived. Instead, new tensions emerged:
Russia’s Resurgence: Under Vladimir Putin, Russia sought to reclaim its sphere of influence, resenting NATO's eastward expansion. This led to the 2014 annexation of Crimea and the 2022 invasion of Ukraine.
The "Chinese Century": China’s massive military and economic growth (seen in the Belt & Road Initiative) has created a new superpower rivalry with the U.S.
Middle East Turmoil:
Theocratic Shift: The 1979 Iranian Revolution created a radical Shi’ite republic, leading to a long rivalry with Saudi Arabia.
The "War on Terror": Attacks by groups like al-Qaeda (9/11) and ISIS led to massive U.S. interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq, often resulting in long-term instability and refugee crises (e.g., 12 million displaced in the Syrian Civil War).
Nuclear Tensions: Conflict remains high between nuclear-armed neighbors like India/Pakistan and North Korea.