GRAMMAR

CLAUSE

• Definition:

  • A group of words containing a subject and a predicate.

  • Can function as a complete sentence (independent clause) or as part of a sentence (dependent clause).

• Structure:

  • Contains a subject and a verb.

  • Can stand alone as a complete thought.

• Types:

  • Independent clause

  • Dependent clause

• Examples:

  • Independent clause: "She went to the store."

  • Dependent clause: "Because it was raining, she took an umbrella."

• Function:

  • Conveys complete ideas.

  • Can function as complete sentences or as part of larger sentence structures.

• Usage:

  • Essential for constructing meaningful sentences and expressing complex ideas.

Phrases:

• Definition:

  • A group of words that does not contain both a subject and a predicate.

  • Functions as a single part of speech within a sentence.

• Structure:

  • Does not have a subject and a verb.

  • Cannot stand alone as a complete thought.

• Types:

  • Noun phrase

  • Verb phrase

  • Prepositional phrase

  • And more (adjective phrase, adverbial phrase, etc.)

• Examples:

  • Noun phrase: "The big brown dog"

  • Prepositional phrase: "In the morning"

• Function:

  • Enhances the meaning of a sentence by providing additional information.

  • Does not express a complete thought on its own.

• Usage:

  • Adds detail and specificity to sentences, helping to clarify or modify the meaning of the clause they are associated with.

TYPES OF SENTENCES

1. Simple Sentence:

   • Structure: Contains one independent clause.

   • Example: "She walked to the store."

   • Note: It expresses a single complete thought.

2. Compound Sentence:

   • Structure: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as "and," "but," "or," "for," "so," "yet," or "nor") and a comma, or by a semicolon.

   • Example: "She walked to the store, and she bought some groceries."

   • Note: Each independent clause can stand alone as a separate sentence.

3. Complex Sentence:

   • Structure: Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

   • Example: "Because it was raining, she took an umbrella."

   • Note: The dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence:

   • Structure: Contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

   • Example: "She walked to the store, but it started raining, so she took an umbrella."

   • Note: Combines elements of both compound and complex sentences.

CONJUNCTIONS

• Subordinating Conjunctions: Connect an independent clause with a dependent clause, showing the relationship between them.

  • Example: "Because it was raining, she took an umbrella."

• Coordinating Conjunctions: Join words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal importance.

  • Example: "She went to the store, and she bought some groceries."

COMMAS, SEMI COLONS AND COLONS

1. Commas (,):

   • Separating Items in a List: Commas are used to separate items in a list.

     • Example: "I need to buy apples, oranges, bananas, and grapes."

   • Joining Independent Clauses: Commas can join two independent clauses when used with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet).

     • Example: "She went to the store, and she bought some groceries."

   • Introducing Non-Essential Information: Commas set off non-essential information (phrases or clauses) that can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence.

     • Example: "The book, which I borrowed from the library, was excellent."

   • Separating Introductory Elements: Commas are used after introductory words, phrases, or clauses.

     • Example: "After dinner, we went for a walk."

2. Semicolons (;):

   • Joining Independent Clauses: Semicolons can join two closely related independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction.

     • Example: "She loves reading; she spends hours in the library."

   • Separating Items in a List with Internal Commas: Semicolons are used to separate items in a list when the items themselves contain commas.

     • Example: "For lunch, I had a salad with tomatoes, cucumbers, and carrots; a sandwich with ham, cheese, and lettuce; and a bowl of soup."

3. Colon (:):

   • Introducing a List or Explanation: Colons are used to introduce a list or an explanation.

     • Example: "Please bring the following items: bread, milk, and eggs."

     • Example: "She had one goal: to become a successful entrepreneur."

   • Separating Independent Clauses When the Second Expands on the First: Colons can separate two independent clauses when the second explains or elaborates on the first.

     • Example: "She had only one choice: to fight for what she believed in.

FIXING A RUN-ON

1. Period (Full Stop):

   • Split the run-on sentence into two or more separate sentences by placing a period at the end of each independent clause.

   • Example: "She loves to read books. She reads every day."

2. Comma and Coordinating Conjunction (FANBOY):

   • Use a comma followed by a coordinating conjunction (such as "and," "but," "or," "for," "so," "yet," or "nor") to join the independent clauses.

   • Example: "He enjoys playing basketball, but he also likes soccer."

3. Semicolon (with or without Transitional Words):

   • Use a semicolon to separate the independent clauses if they are closely related in meaning.

   • Example: "She painted the walls; they turned out beautifully."

   • Optionally, you can include transitional words after the semicolon to indicate the relationship between the clauses.

   • Example: "The concert was canceled; however, it was raining heavily."

4. Complex or Compound-Complex Sentences:

   • Rearrange the sentence structure to create complex or compound-complex sentences, which consist of independent and dependent clauses.

   • Example of a complex sentence: "Because it was raining, she took an umbrella."

   • Example of a compound-complex sentence: "She walked to the store, but it started raining, so she took an umbrella."

FRAGMENTS

• Fragments are incomplete sentences lacking a subject, a verb, or both.

• They fail to convey a complete thought.

• Fragments can result from errors such as missing main clauses or incomplete phrases.

• Identifying and correcting fragments is crucial for maintaining clarity and coherence in writing.

MODIFIERS

Dangling Modifier:

• A dangling modifier is a word or phrase that is intended to modify a word that is not actually present in the sentence or is located in an unclear position.

• It creates confusion or ambiguity because it does not have a clear referent.

• Example: "After eating dinner, the dishes were washed." (The modifier "after eating dinner" seems to modify "the dishes," but it should modify the person who ate dinner.)

Misplaced Modifier:

• A misplaced modifier is a word or phrase that is incorrectly positioned in a sentence, leading to confusion about which word or phrase it is meant to modify.

• It can create ambiguity or change the intended meaning of the sentence.

• Example: "I only ate pizza for dinner." (The modifier "only" is misplaced; it should be placed immediately before the word it is meant to modify. As written, it suggests that the speaker did nothing but eat pizza for dinner.)

paraphrasing and summarizing

QUOTING

SIGNAL PHRASES

Signal Phrases or Attributive Tags are an essential element of research writing. A

Signal Phrases

introduce source material

indicate where source matieral comes from.

shape your reader’s response to a source through appropriate word choice.

So How Do You Write A Signal Phrase?

Signal Phrases can be a single word, phrase, or sentence.

They can appear before or after a quote, paraphrase, or summary.

They often include verbs; be sure your word choice fits the context of the source.

QUALITIES OF A SUMMARY

A good summary should be comprehensive, concise, coherent, and independent. These qualities are explained below:

• Comprehensive:

  • Isolate all important points from the original passage.

  • Note down these points in a list.

  • Review the list and include only indispensable points for the author's thesis or main idea.

• Concise:

  • Eliminate repetitions in the list, even if the author restates points.

  • Ensure the summary is considerably shorter than the source.

  • Aim for brevity, providing an overview without including every repetition or supporting detail.

• Coherent:

  • Ensure the summary makes sense as a standalone piece of writing.

  • Avoid sounding like a disjointed collection of points.

  • Create a logical flow of ideas that reflects the structure of the original passage.

• Independent:

  • Maintain your own voice throughout the summary.

  • Express your understanding of the original text in your own words.

  • Avoid directly quoting the author; paraphrase instead.

  • Be cautious not to introduce personal comments or criticisms that could distort the author's intent.

• MLA vs APA:

  • Differences:

    • MLA: Humanities, author-page citation, no DOI.

    • APA: Social sciences, author-date citation, DOI.

  • Similarities:

    • Both use in-text citations, reference lists, and similar formatting rules.

MLA (Modern Language Association):

• Used in: Humanities, such as literature, languages, arts, and cultural studies.

• In-text citations: Author-page format (e.g., (Smith 123)).

• Works Cited page:

  • Lists sources alphabetically by the author's last name.

  • Includes full publication details such as author, title, publisher, publication date, and page numbers.

• Formatting:

  • Italicizes book titles and puts article or webpage titles in quotation marks.

  • Uses hanging indentation for the Works Cited page.

• Examples:

  • Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year.

  • Article: Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Title of Periodical, volume, issue, year, pages.

  • Website: Last Name, First Name. "Title of Webpage." Title of Website, publisher, publication date, URL.

APA (American Psychological Association):

• Used in: Social sciences, such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and education.

• In-text citations: Author-date format (e.g., (Smith, 2010)).

• References page:

  • Lists sources alphabetically by the author's last name.

  • Includes full publication details such as author, publication date, title, source, and URL (if applicable).

• Formatting:

  • Italicizes book titles and journal titles, but not article titles or webpage titles.

  • Uses hanging indentation for the References page.

• Examples:

  • Book: Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Title of Book. Publisher.

  • Article: Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Title of Article. Title of Periodical, volume(issue), pages.

  • Website: Last Name, First Initial. (Year). Title of Webpage. Title of Website. URL.

MLA TITLES

Book titles

Book titles are italicized.

• Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and Research (book)

• Their Eyes Were Watching God

• All the Pretty Horses

Journals and Magazines

The title of the periodical (journal, magazine, or newspaper) is italicized. The title of the article or work is enclosed in quotations.

Examples:

Danport, Sandra. " A Study of Malawian Households." Journal of Developing Areas...

Gardiner, Andy. "Stanford Could Lose QB, Coach." USA Today...

• Book: Last Name, First Name. Book Title. Publisher, Year.

• Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. "Article Title." Journal Title, volume, issue, year, page range.

• Website: Last Name, First Name. "Webpage Title." Website Title, publication date, URL.

ACADEMIC WRIITNG

Academic writing refers to the style of writing used in scholarly and academic settings, such as universities, research institutions, and academic journals. It is characterized by its formal tone, clarity, precision, and adherence to academic conventions and standards. Academic writing aims to communicate complex ideas, theories, research findings, and arguments in a clear and systematic manner. It is often characterized by the following features:

1. Formality: Academic writing maintains a formal tone and avoids colloquial language, slang, or overly casual expressions.

2. Clarity and Precision: Academic writing strives for clarity and precision in conveying ideas. It uses clear and concise language to ensure that the meaning is easily understood by readers.

3. Objectivity: Academic writing is typically objective and impartial, relying on evidence and logical reasoning rather than personal opinion or emotion.

4. Citation and Referencing: Academic writing acknowledges the sources of information and ideas through proper citation and referencing, following established citation styles such as APA, MLA, or Chicago.

5. Critical Thinking: Academic writing encourages critical thinking and analysis. Writers are expected to evaluate and analyze existing research, theories, and arguments and contribute new insights or perspectives to the scholarly conversation.

6. Structure and Organization: Academic writing follows a logical structure and organization, with clear introductions, well-developed body paragraphs, and concise conclusions. It often adheres to specific conventions for organizing different types of academic papers, such as essays, research papers, literature reviews, or dissertations.

7. Audience Awareness: Academic writing is typically directed toward an academic audience, such as professors, researchers, or peers in the field. Writers must consider the knowledge and expectations of their audience when presenting their ideas.

THREE TYPES OF WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

1. Closed Writing Assignments:

   • In a closed writing assignment, students are typically given specific instructions, prompts, or questions to which they must respond.

   • These assignments often have clear guidelines and criteria, leaving little room for interpretation or personal input.

   • Students are expected to provide a direct answer or response based on the information or instructions provided.

   • Example: Answering multiple-choice questions, completing fill-in-the-blank exercises, or responding to short-answer questions with specific criteria.

2. Open Writing Assignments:

   • Open writing assignments provide students with broad topics or themes and give them the freedom to explore and express their ideas creatively.

   • Students have the opportunity to choose their own perspective, approach, and style of writing.

   • These assignments encourage critical thinking, creativity, and independent expression.

   • Example: Writing a reflective essay on a personal experience, composing a narrative based on a given theme, or crafting a persuasive argument on a broad topic.

3. Semi-Open Writing Assignments:

   • Semi-open writing assignments fall between closed and open assignments, offering students some guidance or structure while still allowing for personal interpretation and creativity.

   • Students may be given specific prompts or guidelines to follow, but they have some flexibility in how they approach and develop their response.

   • These assignments encourage students to engage critically with the material while still providing some direction.

   • Example: Responding to a specific writing prompt with some freedom in topic choice or structure, completing a guided writing activity that allows for personal input, or adapting a given scenario or theme to create a unique response.’

PREWRITE

• All writers rely on steps and strategies to begin the writing process.

• The steps in the writing process are prewriting, outlining, writing a rough draft, revising, and editing.

• Prewriting is the transfer of ideas from abstract thoughts into words, phrases, and sentences on paper.

• A good topic interests the writer, appeals to the audience, and fits the purpose of the assignment.

• Writers often choose a general topic first and then narrow the focus to a more specific topic.

ORGANIZING IDEAS

THREE COMMON METHODS

1. Chronological Order:

   • Organizes information based on the sequence of time or events.

   • Presents details in the order they occurred, from past to present or vice versa.

   • Useful for narratives, historical accounts, and step-by-step processes.

   • Example: Writing about the history of a city, outlining the stages of a project, or narrating a personal experience from beginning to end.

expository writing

1. Spatial Order:

   • Organizes information based on physical location or spatial arrangement.

   • Describes items or ideas in relation to their position in space.

   • Often used in descriptive writing to create vivid imagery.

   • Example: Describing the layout of a room, outlining the geography of a region, or detailing the features of an object from top to bottom or left to right.

2. Order of Importance:

   • Organizes information based on its significance or level of importance.

   • Presents the most important details first, followed by less crucial information.

   • Helps readers focus on key points and understand the hierarchy of ideas.

   • Example: Listing the main arguments in an essay from strongest to weakest, prioritizing key findings in a research paper, or outlining the most essential steps in a process before discussing minor details.

5 STEP WRITING PROCESS

1. Prewriting: This is the initial phase where you brainstorm ideas, gather information, and plan your approach to the writing task. Activities in this stage may include freewriting, outlining, clustering, or conducting research.

2. Outlining the Structure of Ideas: Once you have generated ideas during the prewriting stage, you organize them into a coherent structure. This involves creating an outline or a plan that outlines the main points, supporting details, and overall flow of the writing.

3. Writing a Rough Draft: In this stage, you put your ideas into writing, following the structure outlined in the previous step. The focus here is on getting your thoughts down on paper without worrying too much about perfection. The goal is to produce a complete draft of your work.

4. Revising: After completing the rough draft, you review and refine your writing. This involves evaluating the overall organization, clarity of ideas, coherence of paragraphs, and effectiveness of language. You may need to make significant changes to improve the quality and coherence of your writing.

5. Editing: The final step involves polishing your writing for clarity, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and style. This is where you focus on fine-tuning your work to ensure it is error-free and meets the requirements of the intended audience. Proofreading is an essential part of the editing process to catch any remaining mistakes before finalizing your writing.

REVISING VS EDITING

• Revising: Changing the content and structure of your writing to make it clearer and more effective.

• Editing: Fixing grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, and making sure your writing is polished and professional.

Coherence:

• Definition: Coherence refers to the logical and orderly connection between ideas within a piece of writing. It ensures that the text flows smoothly and that readers can easily follow the progression of thoughts and arguments.

• Achieved by:

  • Using transition words and phrases to signal relationships between ideas (e.g., however, therefore, in addition).

  • Organizing information in a logical order, such as chronological, spatial, or order of importance.

  • Using consistent and clear pronoun references to avoid confusion.

  • Repeating key terms or concepts to reinforce understanding.

• Example: Transition sentences at the beginning of paragraphs guide readers from one topic to the next, maintaining a cohesive flow of ideas.

Unity:

• Definition: Unity refers to the focus and consistency of a piece of writing. It ensures that all parts of the text contribute to a single main idea or purpose, without straying into unrelated topics or digressions.

• Achieved by:

  • Stating a clear thesis or main idea that guides the entire piece of writing.

  • Ensuring that each paragraph supports the thesis or main idea and contributes to the overall argument.

  • Eliminating irrelevant or off-topic information that does not directly relate to the main point.

  • Maintaining a consistent tone, style, and point of view throughout the writing.

• Example: Each paragraph in an essay presents evidence or analysis that directly supports the central argument, maintaining focus and relevance.

THESIS

A Strong Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities.

• Specificity:

  • Concentrates on a specific area of a general topic.

  • Begins with a broad subject and narrows it down until a specific aspect is pinpointed.

  • Example: Instead of "health care," focuses on a specific area like "options for individuals without health care coverage."

• Precision:

  • Must be precise to allow for a coherent argument and remain focused on the topic.

  • Makes an exact claim about the specific topic.

  • Example: Claims that "limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers."

• Ability to be Argued:

  • Presents a relevant and specific argument.

  • Avoids factual statements that are not considered arguable.

  • Ensures the thesis statement contains a point of view supported with evidence.

• Ability to be Demonstrated:

  • Provides reasons and examples to support the claim.

  • Relies on personal observations or outside sources to demonstrate validity.

  • Backs the argument with examples and details.

• Forcefulness:

  • Demonstrates that an argument is being made.

  • Assertive tone takes a stance that others might oppose.

• Confidence:

  • Avoids weak phrases like "I feel" or "I believe."

  • Uses authoritative language to strengthen the claim.

  • Persuades readers to have faith in the argument and be open-minded.

WEAK THESIS

• A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay.

  Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge.

• A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side.

  Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books.

• A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end.

  Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products.

• A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad.

  Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

WRITING BODY PARAGRAPHS

PRIMARY SUPPORT- major points used to expand thesis

• Be Specific:

  • Make specific points about your thesis and use concrete examples to support them.

  • Specific examples provide clear evidence and strengthen your argument.

  • Avoid general examples, as they are less compelling and do not add depth to your writing.

• Be Relevant to the Thesis:

  • Ensure that your examples directly relate to your thesis statement.

  • Strong support reinforces your main argument without including irrelevant details.

  • Choose examples that directly support and enhance your thesis, avoiding distractions.

• Be Detailed:

  • Develop your discussion in the body paragraphs with detailed support.

  • Use precise details to enrich your argument and demonstrate thorough consideration of the topic.

  • Detailed support showcases your careful analysis and strengthens your perspective.

TYPES OF EVIDENCE

• Facts:

  • Provide solid evidence that is difficult to dispute.

  • Offer background information or a foundation for your argument.

  • Some facts may require explanation to make them relevant to your specific argument.

• Judgments:

  • Conclusions drawn from facts.

  • More credible than opinions, as they are based on careful reasoning and examination.

• Testimony:

  • Consists of direct quotations from eyewitnesses or expert witnesses.

  • Eyewitness testimony adds authenticity based on direct experience.

  • Expert witnesses provide commentary based on extensive knowledge, adding authority and credibility to an argument.

• Personal Observation:

  • Reflects your own experiences, opinions, or judgments.

  • Offers firsthand insight based on personal knowledge and observations.

  • Can strengthen your argument by providing real-life examples and perspectives.

TOPIC SENTENCE ONE PART OF THESIS AND SUPPORTING EVIDENCE

TAKEAWAYS
Your body paragraphs should closely follow the path set forth by your thesis statement.

• Strong body paragraphs contain evidence that supports your thesis.

• Primary support comprises the most important points you use to support your thesis.

• Strong primary support is specific, detailed, and relevant to the thesis.

• Prewriting helps you determine your most compelling primary support.

• Evidence includes facts, judgments, testimony, and personal observation.

• Reliable sources may include newspapers, magazines, academic journals, books, encyclopedias, and firsthand testimony.

• A topic sentence presents one point of your thesis statement while the information in the rest of the paragraph supports that point.

• A body paragraph comprises a topic sentence plus supporting details.

CONCLUSION

It is wise to avoid doing any of the following in your conclusion:

• Introducing new material

• Contradicting your thesis

• Changing your thesis

• Using apologies or disclaimers