Motivation & Emotion: Comprehensive Notes
MOTIVATION
Definition: Motivation is the internal state that activates and directs thoughts, feelings, and actions.
It energizes behavior and gives it direction.
It initiates, activates, or maintains an organism's goal-directed behavior.
Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
Arises from within the individual.
Activity is voluntarily motivating.
Extrinsic Motivation:
Arises from outside the individual.
Motivated by external factors.
Motive
Anything that arouses an individual and directs their behavior towards a goal.
A factor that influences behavior, as every action has a motive.
Primary Motives
Also known as biological motives.
Have a physiological basis and are biologically necessary for survival.
Examples:
Hunger
Thirst
Secondary Motives
Learned motives, also known as psychosocial motives.
Examples:
Need for affiliation (Social)
Need for approval (Social)
Need for achievement (Psychological Social)
Self-actualization (Psychological Social)
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
Incentive Theory
Drive Theory
Arousal Theory
Humanistic Theory
Instinct Theory
Behaviors are motivated by evolutionary programming.
Example: Seasonal migration in animals (inborn behavior).
Incentive Theory
Motivated by external rewards.
Example: Going to work for monetary compensation.
Relies on behavioral learning concepts like association and reinforcement.
Drive Theory
Actions are motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.
Example: Drinking water to reduce thirst.
Need -> Drive -> Drive-reducing Behavior.
Internal drives push us, while incentives pull us.
Arousal Theory
Actions are taken to either decrease or increase arousal levels.
Low arousal: Seeking excitement (watching an exciting movie or jogging).
High arousal: Seeking relaxation (meditation or reading).
Motivation to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Optimal Level based on individual and Situation
Humanistic Theory
Driven to achieve maximum potential.
Will always do so unless obstacles are placed in their way.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Humans have specific needs that must be met.
Lower-level needs must be met before striving for higher-level needs.
Hierarchy (from bottom to top):
Physiological Needs: food, water, shelter, oxygen, and sleep.
Safety Needs: safety and security.
Belonging and Love Needs: love, acceptance, and belonging.
Esteem Needs: achievement, education, competence, and respect.
Need for Self-Actualization: Need to realize our fullest potential.
Motivational Theories Applied at Workplace
Equity Theory: Employees seek to maintain equity between their inputs and outcomes compared to others.
Expectancy Theory: Employees are motivated when they expect their efforts to lead to desired outcomes.
EMOTIONS
What are Emotions?
A complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes influencing thought and behavior.
A feeling state involving thoughts, physiological changes, and outward expression or behavior.
Emotions vs. Moods
Moods are low-intensity, long-lasting emotional states.
Emotions are more extreme compared to moods.
Emotions are aroused by specific objects or situations, while moods aren't.
Moods may not be expressed, whereas emotions can be.
Basic Emotions
Ekman (1973) found similar facial expressions across different countries for six basic emotions:
Anger
Disgust
Fear
Joy
Sadness
Surprise
Expressing Emotions
Smiles can show different emotions, such as masking anger, overly polite, softening criticism, or reluctant compliance.
Theories of Emotion
Physiological Theories
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Cognitive Theories
Schachter-Singer Theory
Lazarus Theory
Facial Feedback Theory
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Event causes physiological arousal, which is then interpreted, leading to emotion.
If arousal is not noticed or given thought, no emotion is experienced.
Example: Sight of oncoming car -> Pounding heart (arousal) -> Fear (emotion).
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Physiological arousal and emotion are experienced simultaneously.
Gives little to no attention to thoughts or outward behavior
Emotional stimulus produces two concurrent reactions (arousal and experience of emotion) that don't cause each other.
Example: Sight of oncoming car -> Pounding heart (arousal) and Fear (emotion) at the SAME TIME.
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Event causes physiological arousal, which is then cognitively labeled, leading to emotion.
To experience emotion one must:
be physically aroused
cognitively label the arousal
Example: Sight of oncoming car -> Pounding heart (arousal) -> Cognitive label “I’m afraid” -> Fear (emotion).
Lazarus Theory of Emotion
Thoughts come before any emotion or physiological arousal.
Must first think about the situation before experiencing an emotion.
Example You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you think it may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.
Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion
Emotion is the experience of changes in facial muscles.
Smiling leads to experiencing pleasure or happiness; frowning leads to sadness.
Facial muscle changes cue the brain and provide the basis for emotions.
Example: Eyes widen, teeth clench -> Brain interprets as expression of fear -> Experience of fear.
Functionality / Dysfunctionality of Emotions (Ekman & Davidson, 1994)
Both positive and negative emotions can be functional or dysfunctional.
Functional emotions are adequate to place, time, and situation.
Dysfunctionality often relates to the expression (or hiding) of emotions.
General Functions of Emotions
Adaptation
Motivation
Communication
Information for oneself (feelings, thoughts), but sometimes recognition of own emotion is inaccurate.
Information for others (expression).
Can serve as basis for judgments and decisions.
Influences attention and memory.
Influence information processing.
Motivation & Emotion - Linked
The arousal of emotions activates behavior as motives do.
Motives are often accompanied by emotions.
Example: Motive to pass an exam is accompanied by anxiety.
Emotions typically have motivational properties of their own.
Example: Feeling angry makes you want to strike out at the object of your anger.
MOTIVATION
Definition: Motivation is the internal state that activates and directs thoughts, feelings, and actions.- It energizes behavior and gives it direction.
It initiates, activates, or maintains an organism's goal-directed behavior.
Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:- Arises from within the individual.
Activity is voluntarily motivating.
Examples:
Reading a book for pleasure.
Solving a puzzle for fun.
Painting a picture because you enjoy it.
Playing a sport for the love of the game.
Learning a new skill out of curiosity.
Extrinsic Motivation:- Arises from outside the individual.
Motivated by external factors.
Examples:
Studying to get good grades.
Working to earn a salary.
Competing to win a trophy.
Volunteering to gain community service hours.
Following rules to avoid punishment.
Motive
Anything that arouses an individual and directs their behavior towards a goal.
A factor that influences behavior, as every action has a motive.
Primary Motives
Also known as biological motives.
Have a physiological basis and are biologically necessary for survival.
Examples:- Hunger
Thirst
Examples:
Feeling hungry and seeking food.
Feeling thirsty and drinking water.
Feeling cold and seeking warmth.
Feeling tired and seeking sleep.
Feeling the need to breathe and doing so.
Secondary Motives
Learned motives, also known as psychosocial motives.
Examples:- Need for affiliation (Social)
Need for approval (Social)
Need for achievement (Psychological Social)
Self-actualization (Psychological Social)
Examples:
Joining a club to make friends (Need for affiliation).
Seeking praise from a supervisor after completing a project (Need for approval).
Setting a personal best in a race (Need for achievement).
Pursuing a degree to fulfill one's potential (Self-actualization).
Volunteering time to help others (Social).
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
Incentive Theory
Drive Theory
Arousal Theory
Humanistic Theory
Instinct Theory
Behaviors are motivated by evolutionary programming.
Example: Seasonal migration in animals (inborn behavior).
Incentive Theory
Motivated by external rewards.
Example: Going to work for monetary compensation.
Relies on behavioral learning concepts like association and reinforcement.
Examples
Completing a task to earn a bonus.
Participating in a competition to win a prize.
Studying to get a scholarship.
Working hard to get a promotion.
Selling a product to earn a commission.
Drive Theory
Actions are motivated by the need to reduce internal tension caused by unmet needs.
Example: Drinking water to reduce thirst.
Need -> Drive -> Drive-reducing Behavior.
Internal drives push us, while incentives pull us.
Examples:
Putting on a coat to reduce feeling cold.
Eating a meal to reduce hunger.
Taking medicine to relieve pain.
Resting to reduce fatigue.
Turning on the air conditioning to reduce feeling hot.
Arousal Theory
Actions are taken to either decrease or increase arousal levels.
Low arousal: Seeking excitement (watching an exciting movie or jogging).
High arousal: Seeking relaxation (meditation or reading).
Motivation to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
Optimal Level based on individual and Situation
Examples:
Listening to upbeat music to feel energized (Low arousal).
Taking a nap to reduce stress (High arousal).
Going for a walk to clear your head (Low arousal).
Practicing yoga to calm down (High arousal).
Playing a video game for stimulation (Low arousal).
Humanistic Theory
Driven to achieve maximum potential.
Will always do so unless obstacles are placed in their way.
Examples:
Pursuing a career that aligns with your values.
Developing your talents through continuous learning.
Setting personal goals to challenge yourself.
Seeking out opportunities for personal growth.
Expressing your creativity through art, music, or writing.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Humans have specific needs that must be met.
Lower-level needs must be met before striving for higher-level needs.
Hierarchy (from bottom to top):
Physiological Needs: food, water, shelter, oxygen, and sleep.
Safety Needs: safety and security.
Belonging and Love Needs: love, acceptance, and belonging.
Esteem Needs: achievement, education, competence, and respect.
Need for Self-Actualization: Need to realize our fullest potential.
Motivational Theories Applied at Workplace
Equity Theory: Employees seek to maintain equity between their inputs and outcomes compared to others.
Expectancy Theory: Employees are motivated when they expect their efforts to lead to desired outcomes.
EMOTIONS
What are Emotions?
A complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes influencing thought and behavior.
A feeling state involving thoughts, physiological changes, and outward expression or behavior.
Emotions vs. Moods
Moods are low-intensity, long-lasting emotional states.
Emotions are more extreme compared to moods.
Emotions are aroused by specific objects or situations, while moods aren't.
Moods may not be expressed, whereas emotions can be.
Basic Emotions
Ekman (1973) found similar facial expressions across different countries for six basic emotions:- Anger
Disgust
Fear
Joy
Sadness
Surprise
Expressing Emotions
Smiles can show different emotions, such as masking anger, overly polite, softening criticism, or reluctant compliance.
Theories of Emotion
Physiological Theories
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Cognitive Theories
Schachter-Singer Theory
Lazarus Theory
Facial Feedback Theory
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Event causes physiological arousal, which is then interpreted, leading to emotion.
If arousal is not noticed or given thought, no emotion is experienced.
Example: Sight of oncoming car -> Pounding heart (arousal) -> Fear (emotion).
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Physiological arousal and emotion are experienced simultaneously.
Gives little to no attention to thoughts or outward behavior
Emotional stimulus produces two concurrent reactions (arousal and experience of emotion) that don't cause each other.
Example: Sight of oncoming car -> Pounding heart (arousal) and Fear (emotion) at the SAME TIME.
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Event causes physiological arousal, which is then cognitively labeled, leading to emotion.
To experience emotion one must:- be physically aroused
cognitively label the arousal
Example: Sight of oncoming car -> Pounding heart (arousal) -> Cognitive label “I’m afraid” -> Fear (emotion).
Lazarus Theory of Emotion
Thoughts come before any emotion or physiological arousal.
Must first think about the situation before experiencing an emotion.
Example You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you think it may be a mugger so you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens and at the same time experience fear.
Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion
Emotion is the experience of changes in facial muscles.
Smiling leads to experiencing pleasure or happiness; frowning leads to sadness.
Facial muscle changes cue the brain and provide the basis for emotions.
Example: Eyes widen, teeth clench -> Brain interprets as expression of fear -> Experience of fear.
Functionality / Dysfunctionality of Emotions (Ekman & Davidson, 1994)
Both positive and negative emotions can be functional or dysfunctional.
Functional emotions are adequate to place, time, and situation.
Dysfunctionality often relates to the expression (or hiding) of emotions.
General Functions of Emotions
Adaptation
Motivation
Communication
Information for oneself (feelings, thoughts), but sometimes recognition of own emotion is inaccurate.
Information for others (expression).
Can serve as basis for judgments and decisions.
Influences attention and memory.
Influence information processing.
Motivation & Emotion - Linked
The arousal of emotions activates behavior as motives do.
Motives are often accompanied