2.4-2.8

Wars of Religion

Tensions in Europe
- Monarchs were consolidating power.
- Nobility felt like they were losing power.
- The middle class was growing in wealth but not power.
- Religious tensions continued to grow.
- In France, the kings had very short reigns, with many people trying to take power.

French Wars of Religion

France was trying to remain Catholic.
A growing population of Calvinists threatened this.
In 1560, Charles IX came to power at 11 years old.
His mother was Catherine de Medici (daughter of Lorenzo de Medici).
To keep the nobles from taking advantage of him, she reduced their power even more.
This distraction allowed religious persecution to flourish in the country.

Religious Violence

1562: Massacre of French Huguenots at Vassy (defenestration).
Followed by Calvinists looting of Catholic Churches, destroying artwork and breaking stained-glass windows.

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre

1572
Charles IX’s sister married Henry of Navarre.
- Henry was a Calvinist and a cousin of the family.
- He was directly in line for the throne.
This upset many Catholic families who had been trying to increase their power and connections.
Catherine de Medici (bride’s mother) planned an attack with another prominent Catholic family (Guise).
They murdered many of the Huguenot guests at the wedding.
The terror spread throughout Paris and the countryside.
10,000-20,000 French Huguenots were murdered.

The War of the Three Henrys

Three men were trying to become king in France after Charles IX’s death (1574):
- Henry III:
  - Charles’ brother.
  - He was King until 1589.
- Henry of Navarre:
  - Charles and Henry’s brother-in-law.
  - Supported by Elizabeth I.
- Henry of Guise:
  - Part of the Guise family, related to the Queen of Scotland (wife of James V).
  - Supported by Spanish monarchs and other Catholic leaders.
1588: Henry III had Henry of Guise assassinated.
1589: A Catholic monk was ordered by Henry of Guise’s brother to kill Henry III.
That left only Henry of Navarre (a Huguenot) to take the throne.

Henry IV, first Bourbon King

Henry became a moderate who converted back to Catholicism.
This upset the Huguenots, so he also passed the Edict of Nantes.
1598: Huguenots could worship freely, ending religious unity of France (for a while).
Henry’s focus was on improving the economy.
Henry IV was assassinated by a Catholic extremist.
His first marriage was annulled by the Pope.
He then married a different member of the Medici family.
She gave birth to Louis XIII, who would be the next king.

Habsburg Dynasty

Charles V assumed control of HRE, Spain, Austria, Northern Italy, Netherlands.
He realized this was too much for one person.
In 1556, he abdicated the throne (health).
Charles’ son, Philip II, took the Spanish region.
Charles’ brother, Ferdinand, took the Eastern half of the Empire.

HRE at war with the Ottoman Empire

Ottomans took over from the Byzantines in 1453.
HRE stopped the advance of the Ottomans into Europe.
HRE stopped the advancement in Vienna - 1683.

HRE at war with The Netherlands

Philip II wanted a Catholic Europe.
This made England and The Netherlands angry.
1566: A group of Dutch Calvinists destroyed Catholic saint statues.
In response, Philip began to persecute Dutch Calvinists.
William of Orange took over the rebellion as a way to gain more power from Philip II.
Provinces declared independence and declared religious pluralism.

HRE at war with England

Philip II was upset that Elizabeth I of England helped William of Orange.
When he lost The Netherlands, he turned his fight to England.
He sent the Spanish Armada to invade England - 1588.
Due to bad weather and English fire ships, the Spanish Armada was defeated.

Thirty Years War

Peace of Augsburg - 1555 - gave princes authority to decide religion (Catholic or Lutheran) but did not account for Calvinism.
1618 - Bohemia: King of Bohemia had no heirs. HRE Ferdinand II was supposed to get it in that case, but he was Catholic, and Bohemians were Calvinist.

Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

Ferdinand II (HRE) defeated the armies of Frederick I (Calvinist opponent) at the Battle of White Mountain.
Ferdinand II re-imposed Catholicism.

Danish Phase (1625-1630)

Christian IV (Lutheran king of Denmark) invaded Ferdinand’s forces to try to take control of their land and parts of Germany but lost.
Ferdinand issued the Edict of Restitution, forcing Protestant princes to return to Catholicism or pay money to the Empire.

Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

King Gustavus of Sweden took control of the Protestant army.
The army was financially supported by Cardinal Richelieu (French advisor to King Louis XIII).
A Catholic Cardinal supported a Protestant army hoping to make France stronger by weakening Austria and Spain.

French Phase (1635-1648)

King Gustavus died.
The French entered the war on the side of the Protestants.
The Spanish entered the war on the side of the Catholics.
Fighting occurred in German city-states.

Peace of Westphalia

1648: Treaty to End the Thirty Years War.
HRE greatly weakened, and France won.
No more religious unity in Europe; religious plurality expanded, but not religious tolerance.
3-6 million died in this war.
Decisions:
- Switzerland & Netherlands granted independence from HRE.
- French, Swedish, German rulers were strengthened.
- Spain and Austria were weakened.
- Italy was removed from HRE.
- Peace of Augsburg was confirmed.
- Calvinism became an official religion.

Catholic Reformation

Jesuit Order (1540): Ignatius Loyola organized this order of priests from the military. They served as missionaries to convert Natives in the New World.
Ursuline Order (established in the 1500s): Focused on the education of girls. In 1639, they created an order in New France and were the first order in America (New Orleans).
Carmelite Order: St. Teresa of Avila was concerned about growing secularism and corruption and made her order take vows of complete poverty.
Efforts to slow the Protestant Reformation:
- Roman Inquisition (1542): Punishment of heretics.
- Index of Prohibited Books: Catholics could not print nor read these books, punishable by death.
Council of Trent, organized by Pope Paul III, met three times from 1543-1563.
- The council got rid of pluralism, simony, and indulgences and would not support immorality among priests.
- The council reaffirmed the 7 Sacraments, good faith and good works, clerical celibacy, art in churches, and the power of the Pope.
- The reforms and affirmations both made people return to or stay Catholic, successful in Southern and Central Europe.

16th Century Science and Politics

Rural Families
- Self-sufficient Farmers.
- All members of the family contributed to the household either through field labor or household chores.
Family was the center of life more than the church (true for urban families too)
Urban Families
- Merchants, business owners, and lawyers:
  - made decent income
  - didn’t have titles
- Craftsmen, artisans
  - Cottage industry until the early 1700s
  - Women and men worked alongside each other on the craft.
    Social Status
Class:
- Determined by birth and wealth
- Nobles inherited titles along with land
Primogeniture
- Laws to keep land in the hands of one person
- Younger sons joined the clergy, joined the military, became artisans

Social Mobility

There was social mobility by wealth, not birthright.
To account for this growing wealthy class without title, the House of Commons was added to Parliament.
- Wealthy, but untitled landowners.
House of Lords - upper House of Parliament for nobles

Women in Europe

Patriarchy
Property ownership was limited
- Netherlands - widows could take over the husband’s craft
- Dowry
  - really went to the husband
  - But only $(\frac{1}{3})$ could be used by the husband
  - Wives could decide who got the dowry upon her death
Unmarried women had few options
- Most had to join the convent
- Protestant countries didn’t have this option
  - Many were encouraged to get a limited education
  - Anabaptists allowed women the most rights
    - Less patriarchal, more emphasis on personal choice

La Querelle des Femmes

One side:
- Women were naturally inferior to men
- Unchangeable
- Evidence:
  - God created man in God’s image
  - Eve betrayed Adam
Other side:
- Men oppressed women to maintain their own social status and power
- Evidence:
  - Lack of education and property rights were changeable
  - Eve was deceived by the serpent, and Adam knew what he was doing was wrong and did it anyway

Changing Demographics in 1500s

Population Increase + Little Ice Age = food scarcity and trouble meeting demands for products
- Led to delay in marriages
- Led to fewer children

Importance of Church

Center of community
Celebrations
- Feast days
- Carnival
Established communal norms
Punishments (also by government)

Witchcraft

Accusation based on:
- Personal slight
- Attempt to gain more rights
- Economics
- Land
80% of the accused were women

Art of the 16th Century

Mannerism

Started as a criticism Made in the “manner” of Renaissance artists (but not as good)
They wanted to add distortion, illusion, drama to art
Against the perfection of Renaissance

El Greco

Elongated figures
Dark, eerie colors
Feelings of intensity
Las Meninas
- Dark, eerie colors
- Feelings of intensity
- Who are you in this painting?
Burial of Count Orgaz
- Count Orgaz was a religious donor
- Feelings of mystery
  - Are we indoors or outside?
- His burial site sits below painting
- Heaven and Earth in unison

Baroque

Also a criticism at first, meaning overly dramatic.
Many religious themes Became a favorite of the Catholic Church during the Reformation.

Caravagio

The Calling of St. Matthew
Religious figures as everyday men and women
St. Matthew sits in light
The others in shadow

Artemisia Gentileschi

Caravaggisti - Followers of Caravaggio Student of Caravaggio
Specialized in women from the Bible
Light used to display emotion

Gian Lorenzo Bernini

Sculptor
His “David” is in the motion of attacking
Demonstrates more emotion