Detailed Notes on the Role of Female Combatants in Japan's Meiji Restoration

Female Combatants and Japan's Meiji Restoration: The Case of Aizu

Introduction

Japan's modern period started with the Boshin Civil War (January 1868 - June 1869).
It was a conflict between supporters of the ousted Tokugawa regime and the newly established Meiji government.
The activities of Aizu domain's women during the Boshin conflict challenge the portrayal of the Meiji Restoration as a universally popular change.

Background

Aizu (modern Fukushima Prefecture) showed the deepest commitment to Tokugawa rule out of over 250 domains in Edo Japan.
The Aizu-Matsudaira, Aizu's ruling family, was a collateral branch of the Tokugawa, which was Japan's de facto ruling family.
The Aizu-Matsudaira were permitted to maintain a fortified castle, Tsurugajo (Crane Castle), in Aizu-Wakamatsu.
Aizu's leader during the late Edo period was Matsudaira Katamori (1835-93), who was appointed military governor (shugo) of Kyoto in 1862.
Katamori's duty was to ensure Tokugawa control of the imperial capital and the imperial family.
In 1866, Katamori was permitted to adopt Mito (Tokugawa) Nobunori as his heir.
The imperial court, controlled by warriors from Satsuma, Choshu, and other domains, conflicted with Katamori.
In late 1867, Katamori resigned to relieve tension, but it was ineffective as the Boshin War followed.

Boshin War

The 'imperial' army captured Kyoto, and the Meiji emperor 'dismissed' Shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, proclaiming a return to direct imperial rule.
The leaders of the western domains, especially Satsuma and Choshu, were in control.
Aizu and other pro-shogunate forces attempted to retake Kyoto on 1868.1.3 (27 Jan. 1868), but were defeated in the battle of Toba-Fushimi.
The imperial army marched on Edo, leading to Yoshinobu's surrender and the renaming of Edo to Tokyo ('Eastern Capital').
Aizu's leader, Katamori, resisted and was declared an enemy of the state.
Katamori joined the Ouetsu Reppan Domei, an 'anti-imperial' alliance of 31 domains in the Tohoku region, fielding about 80,000 troops.
Date Yoshikuni of Sendai domain was the league's military commander, with Katamori as second-in-command.

Arms and Technology

Foreign nations sold weapons to both sides.
The imperial faction relied on Britain's Thomas B. Glover, and the 'rebels' on the Dutch Schnell brothers.
Domains sought to provide troops with .58 calibre Minie rifles.
There was a disparity in units' firepower, with some troops armed with American-made Spencer rifles and others with English Imperial rifles.
Satsuma troops possessed France's Chassepot rifles.
Prices varied, with British 1851 Minie rifles at $36, British 1864 Sniders at $104, and American 1859 Sharps at $120.
Spencers were the best weapons available.
The imperial army consisted of 74,539 men and 100 cannon.
The Ouetsu Reppan Domei relied on older technology.
Aizu committed over 300 troops to the defense of Niigata, its primary access to foreign resources.
General Saigo Tanomo reorganized Aizu's army, incorporating townsmen and farmers.
Aizu forces numbered approximately 7000, including warriors, peasant troops, and irregular bands like the 'Women's Army' (Joshigun).

Women's Role in Combat

Women of Aizu's military class were required to receive instruction in basic martial skills.
Aizu's women-warriors received in-depth combat drilling, particularly in the use of the halberd.
They were taught that their duty was to protect their domain, lord, and families.

Responses to Invasion

When imperial forces invaded Aizu, women warriors responded with suicide, evacuation, withdrawal into Crane Castle, or direct combat.
Middle-aged, lower-ranking women committed suicide rather than be captured.

Mass Suicides

Twenty households, consisting of over 230 mid-ranking military family members, committed mass suicide.
The household of General Saigo Tanomo lost twenty-one relatives and at least four retainers.
Commander Inoue Okazumi's daughter Yukiko fought as a member of the Joshigun, while Kawahara Asako sought death in battle after killing her family.
The Aizu's warrior women committed to suicide to prevent capture by the new imperial government's army.
Rumors of the imperial army's plan to slaughter Aizu males and sell Aizu women to 'Occidentals' made death an alternative to capture.

Defense of Crane Castle

Most women barricaded themselves within Crane Castle and resisted the invaders.
Children, adolescents, and the elderly provided support services.
Adult women made ammunition, fought fires, cooked, and cared for the wounded.

Joshigun: External Female Combatants

The Joshigun was a platoon of women from middle-ranked warrior families.
It was formed on 8.23/8 October, and consisted of women who were skilled in martial arts.
Known members included Nakano Koko, her daughters Takeko and Masako, Hirata Kocho, Jimbo Yukiko, and others.
The women cropped their hair, wore modified clothing, and armed themselves with halberds and swords.
Nakano Takeko was the driving force behind the Joshigun.

Activities of Joshigun

The Joshigun sought to aid Lady Teruhime.
Nakano Takeko sought permission to join the Machiya Cannon Brigade, but was refused.
The commander designated the Joshigun as a separate squad with Takeko as its leader.
The Women decided to keep Masako with the group.

Battle of Yanagi Bridge

On 10 October, the Joshigun engaged in the battle of Yanagi bridge against imperial forces.
The women charged directly into the line of fire, and many invaders died at their hands.
Takeko was shot through the chest and/or head and died in battle.
Her sister Masako and Aizu soldier Ueno Yoshisaburo severed Takeko's head to prevent it from being taken as a trophy.
Jimbo Yukiko eventually committed suicide by the short sword, because she refused to give information to the imperial army.
Hirata Kocho became deputy commander and assisted in the defense of the Crane Castle from the imperial army.

Remaining Members from Joshigun

On 13 October, Joshigun survivors returned to the castle and were escorted by six Aizu warriors.
Inside the castle, conditions were deteriorating.
The Joshigun met with Lord Katamori, Nobunori, and Lady Teruhime.

Johei: Internal Female Combatants

After returning to the castle, Joshigun members joined other female combatants (johei) in the defense of the fortress.
The siege of Aizu-Wakamatsu's castle began on 8 October and resistance was lead by the women.
Lady Teruhime directed the activities of some 600 women and children and cared for over 500 wounded soldiers.
She also used supernatural aids to prolong the castle's resistance.
Aizu-Wakamatsu tried to follow western medical protocols to prevent infection, but eventually the supplies were exhausted.
The women that made risky forays outside to obtain medical supplies were stabbed and killed.
Mothers were unable to properly nuture their infants, which resulted with mortality.
The dead were dumped into empty wells and buried in an open area of the castle's Second Compound.
Old women collected enemy bullets for reuse.
Yamamoto Yaeko, a gunnery instructor's daughter, commanded the defense of the fortress and instructed women in the manufacture of ammunition.

Surrender and Aftermath

The castle's defenders surrendered after a month-long siege.
The Imperial army acquired 4956 prisoners and many arms.
The terms of surrender included protection for elders, boys, and women.
Katamori and Nobunori were placed under house arrest.
Teruhime returned to her natal family.
Five Aizu commanders were to be beheaded.
The fortress's male warriors were transferred to nearby Inawashiro.
Health concerns led to a cancellation of this prohibition.
The Meiji government initially prohibited the burial and/or cremation of Aizu's warrior dead and dead.
Battles during the Boshin War took the lives of 2973 members of Aizu's warrior class.
In late 1869, Kataharu and 1700 Aizu warrior families were forcibly relocated to Tanami.

Fate of Female Combatants

At least four of the Joshigun survived the collapse of Aizu.
Hirata Kocho married Toda Emon and lived in Tokyo.
Nakano Masako married Gamo Seiichiro and settled in Hakodate.
Yoda Kikuko married Mizushima Atsushi and resettled in Hakodate.
Yamamoto Yaeko divorced her husband and founded Kyoto's Doshisha University with Niijima Jo.
Yamakawa Sakuko (Sutematsu) studied in America, became a certified nurse, and married Oyama Iwao, the commander of Satsuma's Second Cannon Squad.

Conclusion

The Meiji Restoration was not universally supported, as demonstrated by the Boshin War and the resistance of Aizu.
The Joshigun and other female combatants demonstrated the commitment of mid-ranked members of Japan's military class to the Tokugawa shogunate.
These individuals fought to preserve a system which had protected 'their' country for more than one thousand years.
The Meiji state co-opted the support of former champions of resistance, integrating them into the 'new' social elite.