Comparative Politics Exam Notes
Course Foundations
Political Systems, Regimes, and Governments (18-27%)
Democratization vs Authoritarianism
Sources of Power and Authority
Federal vs Unitary Systems
Political Legitimacy and Stability
Political Institutions (22-33%)
Presidential vs Parliamentary
Terms and Removal of Executives
Legislative Systems
Judicial Systems
Political Culture and Participation (11-18%)
Civil Society and Political Participation
Political Culture and Beliefs
Civil Liberties and Political Rights
Social Cleavages
Parties, Electoral Systems, and Citizen Participation (13-18%)
Electoral Systems and Rules
Political Party Systems
Social Movements
Interest Groups: Pluralism and Corporatism
Political and Economic Change (16-24%)
Impact of globalization and technology
Political and economic liberalization
Social Policies and Demography
Impact of industrialization and natural resources
Why Compare?
Comparative politics: study of political systems through the methodology of analyzing similarities and differences.
Comparison as a social science: use some degree of scientific method.
Understanding our own system better: strengths and weaknesses.
Understanding of a globalized world: analysis of how it is connected.
Why these Countries?
Levels of Development: From least developed (Nigeria) to Middle Income (Mexico) to Highly Developed (UK) challenges
Levels of Democratization: Authoritarianism (China, Iran), Democratic Transitions (Nigeria, Russia), Substantive Democracies (UK, Mexico)
Regions of the World: most regions covered but are they representative?
Different Government Systems- Presidential vs Parliamentary, Unitary vs Federal
Comparative Method Relationships Between Variables
Variables
Dependent:
The variable that is trying to be explained.
Influenced by other variables.
Independent:
The variable being examined as a possible cause of changes in the dependent variable.
Example: Per capita GDP and level of democratization.
Causality vs Correlation
Correlation:
Two variables are related in an undefined way (positive or negative).
Without evidence of one causing the other.
Causality:
Relationship between two variables in which a change in one produces a change in the other.
Most-Similar Approach
Look at similar cases in order to limit the number of independent variables.
Narrows the possible variables for a specific outcome.
Example: China and Soviet Union comparing economic liberalization and political authority in the 1980s.
Most-Different Approach
Look at different cases but with a similar dependent variable.
Allows control over many variables to narrow the best explanation for the dependent variable.
Example: PRI in Mexico, United in Russia one party systems; compare causes and possible futures.
Tools of Analysis
Normative vs Empirical
Normative:
Value statements, subjective.
Describe how things “should” be (ex: Which political system is the best?).
Empirical:
Factual statements, objective.
Describe how things are in “fact” (ex: Which political system allows for more political participation?).
Quantitative, qualitative analysis
Qualitative analysis:
Small number of cases analyzed in detail by subjective analysis (role of oil on democratization).
Quantitative analysis:
Large number of cases analyzed statistically (ex: PPP or Gini Index).
Economic Indicators
GDP per capita:
Gross Domestic Product.
Economic output per person per year in a country’s borders.
PPP:
Purchasing Power Parity.
A way to adjust per capita for living standards/relative costs in a country.
Gini Coefficient:
Compares the distribution of income w/in a country.
Human Development Index (longevity, knowledge, and income)
Nations, States, and People
A World of States
Nation:
A people, bound together by a common culture, language, ethnicity, history, or religion, with political aspirations (to their country or a desire to have a country).
Ethnic Identity
Shares many similar characteristics to national identity but differs because it is about heritage and identity.
May be several within a nation or contain several national identities.
Nationalism
Dedication to one’s national interests above others.
State:
Political institutions that exercise sovereignty in a recognized territory over a permanent population (a state = “country”, the state=“government”).
Sovereignty:
The recognized authority to rule a territory and people without outside interference (monopoly of coercion).
Supranational organization:
International organization in which states must surrender sovereignty for the common benefit ex: EU
Nation-state:
Territory in which the state and national identity coincide
Multinational/ethnic state:
Is a state with many people groups, often a challenge to maintain national unity with minorities (all of our countries)
Conflicts Within States
Collective Identity:
Shared political identity based on similarities of ethnicity, race, gender, age, social class, locality, religion, language, sexual orientation
Social Cleavages:
Profound social differences that have the capacity to cause conflict
Coinciding/ polarizing cleavages:
Societal differences that have a dangerous reinforcing effect
Ex US: coinciding cleavages of race, urban vs suburban, wealth
Ex: Chinese Tibetans (region, religion, ethnicity), Nigerian Hausa-Fulani (rural, religion, language, income)
Ex: cleavages reveal in the US after election
Cross-cutting cleavages:
Societal differences that are spread out so as to reduce potential tensions
Ex Scotland not choosing independence because population has similar ethnicity, religion, level of development than the rest of the UK
Ex most ethnic minorities in Iran are also Shi’a Muslim
Political and Economic Ideological Spectrums
Authority Spectrum
Ideology:
A system of beliefs about humanity, gov’t, and policy
Liberty
Liberalism:
Free markets, personal freedoms, free elections, limited government
Libertarianism:
Severely restrict government involvement in people’s lives, individualism
Authoritarianism:
Authority is centralized in the government
Communism:
Government controls all production through a single party to create equality
Fascism:
Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over that of ethnic minorities and the political opposition
Economic Spectrum
Political Economy:
Interconnection between government policy and the economy (how gov’t affects the economy and vice versa)
Fiscal:
Taxes, spending, budgets, social resources, ownership of industries (Legislative, Executive)
Trade:
Ex: protectionism- tariffs and subsidies for domestic industries (Government Policies, Treaties)
Monetary:
Currency, interest rates, inflation (Central Bank)
Neoliberalism:
Less government controlled industries toward private/market control (capitalism)
Socialism:
Emphasize government ownership to redistribute wealth
Command:
Government plans economy, communism (Stalin 5 year plans)
Most countries mix elements of both socialism and neoliberal capitalism
Other Spectrums
Globalism:
Belief in the common good of humanity, less focus on borders and sovereignty, reduced trade barriers
Nationalism:
Belief in your people above all, protectionist, skeptical of international organizations
Conservatism vs Progressivism:
Keeping vs disrupting social mores/norms
Populism:
Appealing to the interests and rights of common people
Elitism
Democratization
Elements of Liberal Democracy:
Free fair elections with universal suffrage
Competitive political parties with ideological differences, chance of winning
Transparency in policy making and free media
Civil liberties (freedoms like speech, press, religion) and political rights (ability to participate in political process)
Checks on executive power
Rule of Law:
The principles of the law being above all people and institutions, law fairly and evenly enforced by an independent judiciary
Conditions for Democratization Economics:
Usually high per capita GDP- many new democracies failed because of lack of economic autonomy of entrepreneurs, education, public participation through civil society
Has a strong civil society:
Organizations outside the government which provide public participation, advance their interests, and compete to influence policy
Citizen participation:
Voluntary and active citizens are essential to democracy vs coerced to support the regime
Social movements:
Large group of people collectively pushing for social change
Social capital:
Value of social networks that build civil society (high vs low)
Political Culture:
The collective attitudes, values, and beliefs of the citizenry and the norms of behavior in the political system
Differs from ideology because it is about society as a whole, not individuals; can be more or less conducive to democracy
Ex: Russia’s political culture emphasizes nationalism and deference to authority, China’s is influenced by Confusion values of collectivism as opposed to individualism, UK’s has elements of post-materialism
Sources of legitimacy:
The perceived right to rule a country
Elections give legitimacy but also can be nationalism, economic growth, religion, ideology, cult of personality
Rules:
Have both formal rules (Constitution) and informal rules (belief in the democratic system)
Political efficacy:
People believe in the gov’t, are well informed, and believe that they can influence the political system
Factors Hindering Democracy
Corruption:
Hurts rule of law and legitimacy, reinforced authoritarianism through patronage
Election rules can decrease diversity and competitiveness
Lack of separation of powers:
Executives can dominate judiciaries, legislatures, regional governments
Regime Type Transitions in Regime
Regime:
Institutions and practices of a system of governance that endures from government to government often defined by Constitution, changes of regime are often through revolution
Government:
The group of people who occupy political institutions who exercise authority and make policy (in the US we use the term “administration)
Smooth changes of government and lasting legitimacy of regime are the among the greatest benefits of a democratic regime
Levels of Democratization
Substantive Democracy Liberal:
Meets all six of the criteria, functions as a democracy
Citizen:
Free participation and strong civil society
Democratic Consolidation is the process of becoming more substantive, maturing and unlikely to regress from a democracy
Examples in this class: UK and Mexico
Illiberal Democracy
Competitive authoritarian regime- hybrid of authoritarianism and democracy
Has elections but does not meet all six conditions:
Elections are used to lend legitimacy to those who keep power for themselves, Limits civil liberties, no rule of law, independent judiciary, etc
Citizen participation is often co-opted by the government through control over citizen interest groups, state-organized participation, crackdown on participation against the regime
Examples in this class: Russia and Nigeria
Non-Democracy:
Is authoritarian or even totalitarian, does not follow any of conditions of democracy, use coercion (use or threat of force) to govern
Authority and legitimacy comes from religion, monarchy, nationalism, ideology, military, or charisma of leader Low social capital/civil society, citizens participate in limited ways (often through protest or violence, guided participation)
Examples: China, Iran
Executive Legislative Relationships
Roles of Executives
Single vs Dual Executive:
Mexico and Nigeria are single executive, the rest have different dynamics between the executives (compare UK to Russia)
Head of State:
Top executive who represents and symbolizes the country as a whole, in charge of foreign policy and military
Head of Government:
Secondary executive who manages the day-to-day operations of the government (cabinet and bureaucracy), manages economic policy, often also leader of parliament
Advantages of term limits:
Government accountability, hinders dictatorships, transitions to new governments
Disadvantages of term limits:
Good leaders not enough time or experience, policy discontinuity, lame-duck period
Presidential vs Parliamentary
Presidential:
Separation of powers between executive and legislative, checks and balances (Mexico, Nigeria)
Selection of executives:
Head of state is direct election by the people, separate from legislature
Cabinet appointed by president for their technocratic abilities
Removal process: Impeachment:
Lower house accuses of crime, trial in upper house
Parliamentary:
Fusion of power between executive and legislative, head of government leads the legislature (UK)
Selection of executives:
Party that has majority forms a gov’t, chooses the Prime Minister (head of government) Cabinet chosen by PM from within the legislature
Removal Process:
Vote of no confidence:
Legislature votes to remove PM and Cabinet, can lead to a new election
Semi-Presidential:
President chosen by direct elections, Prime Minister is selected by the President and then confirmed by the legislature (Russia)
Authoritarian states have weak legislatures that give legitimacy to policymaking by making executive policies into laws (China, Iran)
Other Political Institutions
Centralization and Legislatures Centralization
Centralization vs Decentralization
Unitary:
All power is centralized in the capital, and voluntarily distributed to the regions (devolution)
Federal:
Constitutional division of power between central and regional governments (can be weak, strong, asymmetric)
Legislatures
Unicameral
(one house- China, Iran) vs Bicameral (two houses)
Upper House:
Usually less democratic and political, In federal systems represents the regions
Lower House:
Represents the people, usually the primary law making body
Symmetrical vs Asymmetrical:
Equal (US, Mexico, Nigeria) or unequal (UK, Russia) role of two houses
Judiciaries Legal Systems
Common Law:
Legal system based on precedent, tradition (UK and its colonies)
Civil/Code Law:
Legal system is based on explicitly written statutes (Justinian and Napoleonic traditions)
Sharia Law:
Islamic law based on principles in the Qur’an and Hadith with interpretation (more in common with common than civil), can be applied only to personal matters or fully for criminal matters
Rule of Law:
Independent, accountable, principled vs Rule by Law (use laws to enforce the will of authorities)
Independent Judiciaries can reduce corruption, protect liberties
Judicial Review:
Courts decide the constitutionality of law and government actions
Linkage Institutions
(structures that connect people to the government)
Political Parties:
Organize participation, elite recruitment, policy creation
Media:
Give transparency, access to information, government accountability
Interest Groups:
Promote causes and helps citizens influence the government (NGOs)
Corporatist System:
A few interest groups co-opted by the government that are given exclusive access to policy-makers
Pluralist System:
Many competitive interest groups with open access to policy-makers
Electoral Systems
First-Past-the-Post
Also known as single member district/winner-take-all/plurality
Voting process:
Vote for a person (who is a member of a party) in a legislative district Whoever gets plurality (the most) in the district gets the seat
Run-offs:
In some elections (especially with executives), top two candidates have a second election to ensure a majority
Parties
Leads to a two-party system because there is little success for minor parties catch-all parties (parties that try to appeal to most people) usually based on left vs right economic ideology Minor parties often pull from the main two or are geographically concentrated
Advantages:
Constituency service w/local representation, stable two party system
Disadvantages:
Strategic voting and less proportional representation, subject to gerrymandering
Proportional Representation
Voting Process
People vote for a party, not an individual for the legislature Parties get a certain number of seats based on their portion of the popular vote (with a minimum threshold), have a party list of candidates to fill the seats
Parties
Lends itself to more multiparty system, more variety of members of parliament with diverse ideologies that form coalitions- alliances between parties for majority rule A minimum threshold so very minor parties don’t get seats
Advantages:
Diversity of choice, more representative of the country, coalitions
Disadvantages:
Party control, unstable coalitions for governing
Other Voting Systems
Mixed:
Split ballot with elements of both PR and FPTP (can lead to 3 party) or Multicandidate Districts- multiple seats in one district through PR or FPTP (look at Scotland)
Alternate/Transferable Vote:
Rank your choices in a SMD then your vote is transferred to your secondary choices until one gets a majority
Globalization
Economic Globalization
Interdependence has deepened cross-national connections among workers, goods, and capital and has caused challenges for regime and cultural stability
Economic supranational organizations:
IMF, World Bank- assist development by lending to developing countries, can demand economic changes/budget cuts
World Trade Organization- regulates and promotes international trade
European Union- free trade and unifying economic regulations, some have common
Role of Multinational Corporations:
Companies with governance, supply, and markets across state borders Dominate global trade and are a challenge to sovereignty
Foreign Direct Investment:
Foreign countries and corporations do economic projects in other countries (ex maquilladoras, Belt and Road initiative)
Impact of Globalization Policy responses
Economic liberalization:
Removal of trade barriers to attract FDI, limiting government in economy, privatization (private ownership) of industries
Protectionism:
Goal is assist/protect economy through trade barriers, regulation, and subsidizing or nationalizing (government ownership) domestic industries
Sovereignty Challenges
Immigration, power of supranational orgs and MNCs, sanctions, cultural changes, technological changes
Citizen Reponses
Migration:
Urbanization, areas with FDI, or emigration Civil society demands for more liberties and economic prosperity can be for or against globalization
Natural resources
Governments must decide whether to privatize or nationalize resources like oil Reliance can lead to a “resource curse” that hurts development and democratization
Development has a mix of positive and negative effects:
Urbanization and demographic shifts
Rising standard of living but inequality
Technology and information but Westernization of culture
Reliance on developed countries but also access to global resources and technology
Industrialization but also environmental challenges
Mexico Unit
Mexican History
Rise of the PRI
Pre-20th Century foundations
Colonial system brought Catholicism and a class system based on race (modern Mexico is 60% mestizo and 30% indigenous/Amerindian)
Independence brought weak and divided government, American conquest Mexican Revolution (1910-1924)
Causes:
__ - (1876 to 1911)- repressive dictator and promoted FDI, when he retired peasants revolted: chaos resulted in a million deaths
Effects:
Mexican Constitution of 1917- liberal constitution still used, created federal state, gave rights to poor; Religion: anti-clerical laws after religious rebellion, seized church property, limited role in politics
___ was formed in 1929 to unify competing elites (not based on ideology)
Political System
_ - president limited to one 6 year term to prevent dictatorship, most early presidents were generals El Dedazo- “tap of the finger”- choose successor and appointed all other government positions (patron-clientelism) ___ (few interest groups with exclusive access and control by the gov’t to form policy) of peasants, unions, and middle class business were single peak associations “Perfect Dictatorship”-
Authoritarian but didn’t infringe greatly on people’s rights, had clear line of succession, great economic growth Economic System Redistributed land in the form of _ - farms owned by the gov’t that would be leased and subsidized to poor farmers
Nationalized industries, esp. oil industry (PEMEX)- major export Import substitution industrialization (ISI)- develop national industry through protectionism: tariffs, state ownership, subsidies/investment
Effects of the “Mexican Miracle” (1940-1970):
High growth from oil growth, and low inflation for three decades, Corruption Rapid urbanization and industrialism
Economic Crisis (1970-1994)
Causes of Crisis:
Gov’t became reliant on oil (75% of Mexico’s exports) revenues to keep up spending but then oil prices crashed in late 1970s, leading to nationalizing bank and borrowing from the IMF and World Bank
Economic Liberalization
IMF demanded structural adjustment- reform policies (privatization, ending subsidies) to improve economy and help repayment, downside is loss of sovereignty and hurt the poor through budget cuts
New generation of technocratic leadership (Presidents Madrid and Salinas 82-94) embraced neoliberal reforms, decreased power of unions, privatized much of the ejidos land, joined WTO in 1986 __ (1994)- agreement of free trade of goods w/US and Canada Effects:
Helped growth but unequal, growth in northern regions but pain with farmers in south with decreasing subsidies, vulnerability- economic collapse in 1994 and US bailout
Zapatista Uprising:
1994, day NAFTA went into effect, leftist rebel indigenous group rose up in Chiapas for more rights for Amerindians and against inequality Political Reform (1968-present) Political Crises:
1968 Olympic Massacre (400 protesters killed) Public outcry over leftists that were “disappeared” (tortured and secretly killed) in the “dirty war”
1985 Earthquake (tens of thousands died with a poor PRI response) Political Liberalization
Changes in election laws helped create opposition parties, free state and local elections (mixed electoral system, Mexico City elections), ended anti-clerical laws (PAN party benefited)
_ - independent regulates elections, decreased fraud and corruption, public funding of elections, voter IDs Rising pluralism- many interest groups with open access to the government who compete to influence policy, protests by farmers and unions due to privatization and foreign competition, more civil society=greater democracy Presidential elections:
In 1988 and 1994 were disputed and fraudulent, PRI lost majority of legislature in 1997, Zedillo ended el dedazo by allowing internal party primary- 2000 was an open election
Fall of the PRI
Regime change
2000- Fox (PAN) Experienced some checks on his power because did not have majority in Congress, worked with PRI for economic liberalization Worked on democratization and relationship with the US but accomplished little (economic challenges, immigration, little experience)
2006- Calderon (PAN)
Contested election with Obrador (PRD) massive protests, accused fraud Continued liberalization but main policy was militarization of the drug war
2012- Pena Neito (PRI)
“Pact for Mexico” to do structural reforms working with other parties: competition for PEMEX, taxes, education, reelection for legislators Unpopular because of slow economic growth, crime, and corruption
2018- Lopez Obrador referred to as AMLO (Morena)
Populism- political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over elites, ideology can be from left or right and sometimes is illiberal in the way it empowers an individual leader Won a majority with a coalition majority in Congress with a mandate to end the era of Neoliberal policies, has struggled w/ same problems of Pena Nieto, poor handling of COVID-19 but remains popular
Mexican Government Structure
Mexican Constitution (1917)
Federal structure, presidential system (checks and balances)
Civil law system: Longer and more clearly defined based on statutes, not precedent (Napoleonic legal system)
Clearly defines rights Easier Amendment process (many recent changes) Executive Branch
President How elected:
_ Role: Head of government and state Powers: military, veto, international, run government, appointments, cabinet, introduce legislation Informal power- through party can dominate other branches and states (esp in PRI era)
Impeachment:
Indictment by lower house for a crime, trial by upper house Cabinet- Appointed by president confirmed by the Senate, heads of departments (most important is the Interior- law and order), increasingly technocratic
Bureaucracy
Hierarchy of non-political workers in govt departments Large- 5% of population (local, state, federal, and parastatal) Moderate salary (good path to middle class but also can be bribed) Patron-client system- connections within political hierarchies in which guide promotion and loyalty (patrons give jobs, clients give loyalty) Legislative Branch:
Congress of the Union, Symmetrical legislature (upper house) Represents the 31 states and 1 Federal District (Mexico City) Each state elects 3 senators: two (together in a party) through FPTP plurality and one for the first minority 32 senators are elected through proportional representation (128 total) Six year term, recently allowed two terms (lower house)
300 “Majority Deputies” are elected through single-member districts 200 “Party Deputies: are elected through party list PR, 2% min threshold Three year term, recently allowed four terms Policy Making:
Both houses have similar levels of power (symmetrical like US) but slightly different roles- ex: Chamber levies taxes, Senate approves of appointments, president can veto or sign laws President and bureaucracy have played the central role because of the power PRI and patron-clientelism, legislature used to be more of a rubber stamp
Civil society influencing policy is becoming more pluralist (used to be very corporatist) Judiciary
Appointed by president, confirmed by Senate, serve a 15 year term Increased independence, somewhat limited power compared to US with a civil law system but gaining in power like judicial review (given 1994) Court system problems with lack of rule of law: corruption, limited experience with civil rights, and crime Transitioning to become an adversarial, transparent system, presumption of innocence, greater independence
State and Local Government
Federalism- Constitutional division of power between central and regional gov’t (explain difference with unitary, why diverse countries choose federalism)
Government:
Governors- elected to a 6 year term by their states, Local legislatures: most have mixed electoral systems and are unicameral, different elections were a great source of democratization
* A/D:
* Autonomy to create laws to accommodate its local population (esp like ethnic minorities or on issues like abortion), helps increase political legitimacy and efficacy but can lead to inefficiencies and inconsistencies in policy Though Federal structure, Mexico was very centralized until the decline in the power of the PRI (still controls majority of states), most of finances controlled by the central government (ex: only 3.5% of tax revenue from state/local, UK is 5%, US 37%)* Other Institutions Military Had strong policy making power under early caudillos, now is clearly underneath the civilian government (no coups) but were involved in putting down leftist protesters, growing political and economic role under AMLO Has been used within the country for domestic law enforcement (drug and uprisings like Zapatista), but collateral damage and human rights violations* _____________ - autonomous (or semi) government owned industries Change over time: until 1980, major part of the economy (over a thousand: investment, electricity, farm subsidies, etc) and the unions have had significant political influence, Most have been privatized because of economic liberalization but there still are some (less than 200) ________ national oil company, government owns all mineral rights, inefficient and dropping production, source of about 20-25% of government revenue, PAN wanted to privatize but couldn’t, PRI in 2014 change in the constitution allowed for foreign investment and competition, but recently reversed by AMLO (wants to bolster to use for social services)
Politics and Elections
Elections Types of Elections:
Local and state, President (Primaries for party selection, no run-off), Legislature (Mixed Electoral system) Party System- Multi but historically 3 party dominant, have to work together for lawmaking or create more formal coalitions (permanent party alliances) INE- monitors elections for fraud, Publically funded (partially) spending monitored, ensures equal party media coverage, voter ID cards
Laws:
Voting is mandated (but not enforced), requires 50% of candidates be women Political Parties (National Action Party) Ideology: right center, neoliberal: privatization and pro globalization Support: Catholics, business, middle class, northern, eastern Recent Presidents: Fox- Experienced some checks on his power because did not have majority in Congress, worked with PRI for economic liberalization and democratization and relationship with the US Calderon- Contested election with Obrador (PRD) massive protests, accused fraud, Continued liberalization but main policy was militarization of the drug war (Institutional Revolutionary Party) Ideology: traditionally party of power, now centrist w/limited neoliberalism, internal differences between Politicos (politicians, “dinosaurs”) vs Technicos (technocrats)
Support:
Used to be with the rural poor and unions (esp from the west), but has lost support but still strong local and state government presence
Recent President:
Pena Neito (PRI)- “Pact for Mexico” to do structural reforms working with other parties:
Competition for PEMEX, taxes, education, reelection for legislators;
Unpopular because of slow economic growth, crime, and corruption _ Ideology:
Leftist, social programs, nationalization, protectionism, nationalism Support:
Young, Mexico City, central, south, indigenous
Recent President:
Lopez Obrador- Won a majority with a coalition majority in Congress with a mandate to end the era of Neoliberal policies, has struggled w/ same problems of Pena Nieto, poor handling of COVID-19 but remains popular Populism- political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over elites, ideology can be from left or right and sometimes is illiberal in the way it empowers an individual leader Other parties:
PRD- (Democratic Revolutionary Party)- Leftist political party superseded by Morena, Labor, Green, Indigenous (allied with Morena)
Mexican Society
CleavagesEthnic:
Amerindian (poverty, discrimination) vs Mestizo, given more autonomy through federalism after the Zapatista rebellion
Gender:
Fertility rates lowered, more women working, increasing role in government (about ½ of legislators), but still challenges like domestic violence, drug-related North South:
North more industrialized due to maquiladoras, south more poor, migration patterns to the North as part of NAFTA and liberalization
Urban Rural:
Mexico City 25% of population vs rural farmers, many still in ejidos (over 1/3 of farmers), struggled with NAFTA
Rich Poor:
Large gap (gini around 0.5), business vs socialism
Religion:
___ - laws prevent the Church right to speech vote or association, most of the laws have been overturned 1992 but institutional religion does not play an overt part in modern politics (but connections with the PAN) Over 80% Catholic (but growing Pentecostal Protestants) many with regular church attendance so social conservatism is a potent part of political culture
Society Media
Only two television duopoly companies (Televisa- old links to PRI, and TV Azteca), just added a third station Variety of newspapers and active internet, little government restrictions except when INE regulating political bias, AMLO has undermined some media freedom Threats from corrupt officials and drug cartels- one of the most dangerous places in the world to be a journalist, very low rating of media freedom Civil Society Interest Groups:
Transition from corporatism to pluralism, growing civil society NGOs:
Democratization, help with Mexico’s problems, promote their interests (ex: doctors w/o borders, transparency international, save the children, various corruption watchdogs, socially conservative Catholic orgs, etc) Protests-
___ Political Culture- fairly well developed, high participation rates, strong national identity, but also a high degree of skepticism and pessimism about the ability of politicians to solve their problems
Mexican Public Policy
*