Philosophical Analysis: Advanced Critical Thinking Study Guide

AUTHORSHIP AND COPYRIGHT INFORMATION

• Title: Philosophical Analysis (Seventh Edition): Advanced Techniques For Critical Thinking.

• Author: Andresito E. Acuña, U.P. Department of Philosophy, Diliman, Quezon City.

• Copyright: $2006$ by Andresito E. Acuña. All rights reserved.

• Restricted Materials: The three templates for composing argument, composing policy argument, and resolving cognitive moral dilemmas are protected. Use in masteral theses or doctoral dissertations requires written permission.

• Contact Information: UP, P.O. Box $97$, UP Diliman, Q.C., Philippines. Phone: $981$-$8500$ loc. $2130$.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OVERVIEW

• Unit I: Analysis of Concepts: Modules $1$-$7$, covering words, intension, extension, classification, ambiguity, and analytic definitions.

• Unit II: Analysis of Knowledge Claims: Modules $1$-$5$, covering rationalism, empiricism, types of claims, and theories of truth.

• Unit III: Analysis of Deductive Argument: Modules $1$-$7$, beginning on page $94$, covering formal logic, compound statements, and truth tables.

• Unit IV: Analysis of Natural Argument: Modules $1$-$8$, beginning on page $145$, covering informal logic, induction, fallacies, and policy arguments.

• Unit V: Analysis of Ethical Theories: Modules $1$-$6$, beginning on page $256$, covering teleology, utilitarianism, deontology, and advanced techniques for moral dilemmas.

PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION

• Historical Context: In the mid-$70s$ and early $80s$, the UP Department of Philosophy faced criticism regarding the irrelevance of courses like Philosophy $11$ (Symbolic Logic) to real-world issues (e.g., "the price of eggs in the market").

• The Open Curriculum Issue: The department previously utilized a "BA Philosophy Open Curriculum" which required only $9$ units of philosophy courses. It had a minimum requirement of $120$ units for graduation (the lowest in the college). Students used $33$ units of free electives for unrelated subjects (PE, Music).

• "Tambakan ng mga Basak": This term referred to the department becoming a "dumping ground" for students kicked out of other colleges who could transfer by taking only $9$ units. Acuña sought to end this reputation during his chairship ($1984$-$1987$).

• Philo 1 Implementation: Inclusion of Philo $1$ (Philosophical Analysis) in the $1986$-$1987$ GE Program was designed to impart the conceptual arsenal of philosophers (skills and principles) to thousands of students regardless of their major.

• 7th Edition Objectives: Synchronized module objectives with subtitles in the text. Introduced five policy simulations: Two-Child Policy, Total Logging Ban, Legalize Same-Sex Marriage, Capital Punishment, and Legalization of Jueteng.

• Instructional Materials: Philo $1$ is noted as the most successful GE course, using the same instructional material system-wide since $1987$.

PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION

• International Context: While the Philippine movement for critical thinking developed independently, the 6th edition sought to merge with international mainstream traditions like informal logic and rhetoric.

• Key References: Ralf Johnson's "Manifest Rationality" and Frans H. van Eemeren's "Fundamentals of Argumentation Theory."

• Discipline Distinction:

  • Formal Deductive Logic: Restricted to logical form (valid/invalid). Content is disregarded.

  • Informal Logic: Focused on the content of the argument that formal logicians discard.

• Empirical Logic Example: The argument form "If it rains, Angat Dam will be full; Angat Dam is full; Therefore, it rained" is formally invalid (affirming the consequent) but empirically verified as true if the dam is full.

INTRODUCTION: GOALS OF EDUCATION AND THE UP GE PROGRAM

• Educational Philosophy: Knowledge becomes obsolete due to rapid technological change; therefore, the goal is providing "life skills" (critical thinking) that help students cope with multi-media propaganda and complex societal influences.

• GEP Objectives:

  1. Broaden intellectual/cultural horizons.

  2. Foster commitment to nationalism and internationalism.

  3. Cultivate independent, critical, and creative thinking.

  4. Infuse a passion for learning with moral and intellectual integrity.

  5. Acquire basic skills in mathematics, reasoning, and communication.

• Philosophical Arsenal: Philo $1$ teaches techniques used by major philosophers (Plato, Aristotle, Locke, etc.), including logical analysis, defining concepts, analyzing knowledge claims, and resolving cognitive-moral dilemmas.

THE DEFINITION OF CRITICAL THINKING

• The Network Problem: Concepts like independent, creative, and critical thinking cannot be understood in isolation; Wittgenstein calls such related concepts "cousins."

• Expert Definitions:

  • Harvey Seigel: "Thinking appropriately moved by reason."

  • Robert Ennis: "Rational reflective thinking concerned with what to do or what to believe."

  • Richard Paul: Disciplined, self-directed thinking; the "art of thinking about your thinking."

  • Mathew Lipman: Self-corrective thinking sensitive to context that relies on criteria.

  • John McPeck: Skill and propensity to engage in reflective skepticism.

  • Ralph Johnson: Scrutiny focused on thought as an intellectual/rational product (beliefs, news, arguments).

• Meta-cognition Defense: Acuña links critical thinking to meta-cognition (self-conscious evaluation). Socrates stated: "The unexamined life is not worth living."

• Acuña’s Analytic Definitions:

  • Meta-cognition (Definiendum): Self-conscious act (genus) of evaluating, judging, and criticizing the value of one's own action, belief, or rational product (differentia/denotata).

  • Critical Thinking (Definiendum): Conscious act (genus) of evaluating another person's product (differentia/denotata).

UNIT I, MODULE 1: WORDS AND CONCEPTS

• Word: The simplest unit of communication in natural language; composed of letters.

• Concept: Not the same as a word; a mental unit composed of ideas. Words serve as signs for concepts.

• Abstraction (John Locke, $1632$-$1704$): The process of forming general ideas. Since it is impossible to name every particular (e.g., every grain of sand), humans invent general terms based on common traits.

• Simple Terms: Single words like "dog" or "cat."

• Complex Terms: Multi-word groups expressing a single concept, such as "The present king of France" or "The morning star" ($The‐so‐and‐so$ form according to Bertrand Russell).

UNIT I, MODULE 2: INTENSION AND EXTENSION OF CONCEPTS

• Extension: The domain or kind of things that are members of the concept (e.g., all individual bats regardless of size).

• Intension: The traits, set of traits, characteristics, or functions shared by the members.

• Essential Property: A single trait that is the necessary and sufficient condition for membership (e.g., mammary glands for mammals). Essentialism argues a concept is only meaningful if it has an essential property.

• Family Resemblance (Ludwig Wittgenstein): Challenged essentialism using the example of "games." He argued there is no single "essence" shared by board games, ball games, and Olympic games, but rather a "complicated network of similarities overlapping and criss-crossing" (like fibers in a thread).

UNIT I, MODULE 3: USING THE SAME LANGUAGE

• Meaning as Use: Wittgenstein defined meaning as the "use in the language." To understand a word is to understand its application within a "language-game."

• Form of Life: Sharing a language-game implies sharing a social "form of life."

• Linguistic Defects:

  • Conventional Use: The standard, socially agreed-upon and integrated use of a term.

  • Ambiguous Use: Multiple uses leads to confusion (e.g., "hand" can mean help, body part, or a round of applause).

  • Vague Use: Terms like "some" or "many" where the extension boundaries are unclear.

• The Cardinal Rule: Never take part in a dispute unless sure both parties are using words in the same way. The defense against a formidable argument is to ask: "What do you mean by that? In what sense are you using the word?"

UNIT I, MODULE 4: CLASSIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

• Empirical Concepts: Members exist in space and time; observable through unaided senses (e.g., tables, chairs).

• Theoretical Concepts: Entities like atoms or neutrinos; observable only through sensory-extending devices (electron microscopes, radio telescopes).

• Dispositional Concepts: Hybrid concepts like "magnetic" or "soluble." Traits are observable only if specific operations are performed (e.g., iron filings adhering to an object).

• Analytic (Abstract) Concepts: Conceptual entities created by the mind (e.g., numbers, circles). A perfect circle (infinite points equidistant from a center) does not exist in the physical world; physical drawings are merely approximations.

• Evaluative Concepts: Judgments of worth (Moral: good/bad; Aesthetic: beauty/ugliness; Religious: heaven/hell).

• Fictitious Concepts: Clearly delineated intensions but imaginary members (e.g., unicorns, mermaids, tikbalang).

• Metaphysical Concepts: Entities like "the absolute," "universal mind," or "immaterial substance."

• The Intra/Inter-Subjectivity Test: For a concept to be empirical, it must pass both:

  • Intra-subjectivity: The same observer identifies and re-identifies the entity.

  • Inter-subjectivity: Another person can observe the same entity.

UNIT I, MODULE 5: AMBIGUOUS AND VAGUE TERMS

• Ambiguity as Degree: "Good" is a highly ambiguous evaluative term. A hedonist defines it as "bodily pleasure"; a Kantian as "duty"; a utilitarian as "greatest happiness for the greatest number."

• Fallacy of Equivocation: Shifting the meaning of a term within a single line of reasoning. Examples cited include Sartre's use of "being" and Heidegger's use of "the nothing."

• Heidegger/Carnap Disagreement: Carnap dismissed Heidegger's "The nothing itself nots" as nonsense because Heidegger refused to define the terms.

UNIT I, MODULE 6: ON DEFINITIONS

• Definition by Synonym: Defining an unfamiliar term with a familiar one. Usually circular and rudimentary.

• Ostensive Definition: Pointing to members of an extension. Incomplete because one cannot generalize beyond the pointed examples.

• Reportive (Lexical) Definition: Reports standard/conventional dictionary uses.

• Stipulative Definition: Proposes a unique use for a term in a specific game (logic, science, law). Duty-bound to warn the audience of the shift.

• Operational Definition (P.W. Bridgman): Anchoring concepts to performable operations. Examples include measuring intelligence using the Binet IQ test ($IQ = \frac{MA}{CA} \times 100$).

UNIT I, MODULE 7: ANALYTIC DEFINITION

• The Three Categories:

  1. Definiendum: The term to be defined.

  2. Definiens: The intension, comprised of Genus (wider category) and Differentia (distinguishing trait).

  3. Denotata: Typical samples of the extension members.

• Rules for Sound Definition:

  1. State traits that define membership (avoiding being too broad or too narrow).

  2. Must not be circular (no synonyms).

  3. Must not be stated in the negative unless necessary.

  4. Avoid figurative, obscure, or metaphorical language.

  5. Avoid defining purely by synonym or ostension.

• Analytic Definition Example:

  • Definiendum: Bird.

  • Definiens: Animal (Genus) with feathers (Differentia).

  • Denotata: Ostrich, chicken, pelican.

STUDENT REQUIREMENTS AND PROGRAMMED FORMAT

• Programmed Text Advantage: Guaranteed comprehension of over $80\%$; immediate correction via ASAQ (Answers to Self-Assessment Questions).

• Golden Rule for SAQ: Never look at ASAQ until the answer is written in pen.

• Open University (OU) Grading Parameters:

  • TMA 1-4: $10\%$ each ($40\%$ total).

  • Final Exam: $60\%$

• Structure of Each Module: Introduction, Objectives, Display Text, SAQ, ASAQ, TTD (Things to Do), Help Box, Summary, and Note Pad.