Study Notes on Agenda Setting and Media Concentration

AGENDA SETTING

  • Definition of Agenda Setting Theory

    • The agenda-setting theory posits that the media does not explicitly dictate what to think, but rather what to think about.
    • The lives of individuals are often perceived as reflections of public figures in media, such as movie stars or television characters.
    • Editors and newsroom staff significantly shape political narratives through their choice and presentation of news.
    • Readers learn both about an issue and its relative importance based on the extent of coverage and presentation within news stories.
    • Mass media can influence the major issues of a political campaign through the reflection of candidates' messages (Sources: McCombs, M.E. and Shaw, D.L., 1972).

  • Role of Media

    • Media serves as a creator of public awareness and concern regarding important issues.
    • Two key assumptions of agenda-setting:
    1. The press and media filter and shape reality rather than reflect it.
    2. When media concentrate on a limited number of issues, the public perceives these issues as more significant than others.

  • Types of Agenda Setting

    1. Public Agenda Setting: The public acts as a dependent variable, influenced by media interests.
    2. Media Agenda Setting: Media serves as a dependent variable and involves a process known as agenda building.
    3. Policy Agenda Building: In this context, elite policymakers become the dependent variable.

  • Cognitive Process of Accessibility

    • Accessibility implies that the frequency and prominence of an issue in the media make it more readily available in public memory.
    • When individuals are queried on problems facing their country, their responses are likely based on the most prominent news issues.
    • The agenda-setting effect results not from a single message but from the cumulative impact of numerous messages related to a general issue.
    • Extensive media coverage influences the public’s perception of what others think, leading to an allocation of importance to heavily covered issues (Source: McCombs, M., 2002).

MEDIA CONCENTRATION

  • Multi-National Media Organizations (MNCs)

    • MNCs operate across two or more countries, often influencing global media agendas.
    • Globalization describes the interaction and integration among peoples and economies across nations.

  • Drivers of Globalization

    1. International trade facilitated by agreements from organizations such as the World Trade Organization.
    2. Growth of foreign direct investment and multi-national enterprises.
    3. Advances in communication and transportation technologies.
    4. De-regulation and liberalization within media and trade sectors.
    5. Privatization of public sector services.

  • Global Media Giants

    • A few multinational organizations dominate global media control, whereas pre-1980 media was primarily national.
    • The deregulation and privatization in media and communications were promoted by entities like the World Bank and the IMF.
    • Satellite and digital telecommunications have also contributed to the rise of these global media organizations.
    • Most major global media firms are based in the United States and primarily aim to capitalize on international growth.

MEDIA CONGLOMERATES

  • Definition
    • Media conglomerates consist of companies or single entities owning numerous media companies across various outlets, not limited to news but also including entertainment, publishing, and digital platforms.
  • Concentration of Ownership
    • Definition of media concentration: a small number of institutions own the majority of media outlets.
    • Over 90% of media consumed by Americans is regulated by six leading conglomerates, down from 50 companies in 1983 that held a similar percentage.

Dominant Media Conglomerates

  1. Disney: Owns ABC, ESPN, and various film studios.
  2. Viacom: Includes MTV, Nickelodeon, BET, Paramount.
  3. Time Warner: Includes CNN, HBO, and Warner Bros.
  4. CBS: Owns A & E, Showtime.
  5. GE: Owns Universal Pictures.

Changes in Conglomeration Strategy

  • Prior to the 1980s, media divisions operated independently.
  • Recent mergers, such as Time Warner with Fox and news corporations, indicate a trend towards integrated strategies.
  • Reasons for Change:
    1. Mergers and acquisitions aimed at expanding market share.
    2. Audience erosion where traditional outlets lose viewership to newer platforms.

CASE FOR MEDIA CONCENTRATION

  • Arguments Supporting Concentration:
    • Proponents argue that media concentration provides the public with more diverse information than in the past.
    • Concentrated media ownership can enable better safeguarding of journalistic values and objectivity, improving public information accessibility.
    • Large corporations claim to serve essential public functions that smaller firms may struggle to provide due to financial constraints.
    • Larger institutions can maintain high standards in journalism due to regulatory resources and abilities.

CASE AGAINST MEDIA CONCENTRATION

  • Concerns with Media Concentration:

    • Uniformity of content can stifle diverse perspectives.
    • Increased corporate pressure may lead to a narrow focus on celebrated narratives and populist ideologies.
    • Potential for market censorship where controversial topics receive less coverage.
    • The quality of news can deteriorate as cohesive companies prefer safer, well-tested show formats, stifling creative risks.
    • Conflict of interest arises as media becomes too powerful to effectively serve as a check on political powers.
    • Monopoly control risks exploitation of consumers due to lack of competition, leading to higher media prices and diminished quality.

  • Summary of Disadvantages of MNCs:

    1. Constriction of communication channels leading to significant constraints on media diversity.
    2. Monopolistic practices that may exclude competition and diminish quality service delivery.
    3. The pervasive promotion of consumerism undermining local cultural practices.
    4. Compromise of journalistic values, with a preference for entertainment over responsible reporting.
    5. Increased portrayal of violence in media, which has been linked to higher aggression in youth, suggesting ethical implications for contemporary media practices.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MNCs

  1. Ownership: A firm is considered multinational if its headquarters are effectively owned by interests from multiple countries (e.g., Unilever).
  2. National mix of headquarters managers: Multinational characterization involves having managers from various nationalities within the core executive team.
  3. Business Strategy: Multinational corporations generally seek to maximize global profits while showing loyalty to their incorporated country.

GLOBAL PRESS CONTROL SYSTEMS AND THEIR IMPACT ON PRESS FREEDOM

  • Definition of Press Freedom:
    • Philosophically, freedom can be defined in two major dimensions:
    • Negative Freedom: Absence of external constraints (Thomas Hobbes).
    • Positive Freedom: Ability to overcome social conditions limiting potential (John Stuart Mill).
  • Rights: Include the privilege of publication, gathering information, and alternate viewpoints.
  • Conditions: Absence of censorship, licensing, and interference.
  • Duties:
    • Ensure public expression, serve the public good, present alternative viewpoints, and act as trustees for societal interests.

OWNERSHIP AND POLITICAL INFLUENCE OF MEDIA IN ZAMBIA

  • Media Control: Conducted through three sectors:

    1. Government
    2. Private sector
    3. Community sector

  • Influence Factors:

    • Media ownership shapes journalists’ independence and coverage.
    • Government-run media typically report favorably on government views, whereas community media are biased towards their sponsors.

  • Political Ideology: A political ideology defines how societal security operates and its allocation of power and governance structures (e.g., socialism, capitalism).

  • Challenges in Press Freedom:

    • Zambian journalists face harassment and threats due to restrictive laws that inhibit free expression. Historical penal codes criminalize attempts to expose governmental corruption through journalism.
    • Current media scenarios reflect state interests rather than genuine public service, with no constitutional guarantees of press freedom acknowledged (Sources: Chirwa, 1997; Pitts, 2000).

GLOBAL NEWS FLOW AND NWICO

  • New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO):

    • Advocates argue that third-world countries depend heavily on Western news, creating a neo-colonial state characterized by unidirectional news flow.

  • Imbalances and Cultural Imperialism: Western news agencies influence third-world news values, prioritizing sensational content over substantial issues.

  • Mac Bride Commission:

    • Established in 1977 to examine communication problem disparity, producing a significant report titled “Many Voices, One World” in 1978, advocating for balanced global news representation.

  • U.S. Response to NWICO: Viewed it as a hindrance to free information flow and highlighted the need for balanced communication systems based on principles of international law such as UN charters.

BIAS IN PERFORMANCE OF NEWS AGENCIES

  • Concerns Over Coverage:
    • Western news agencies predominantly emphasize negative news about third-world countries, leading to skewed perceptions.
    • There is a call for African and Asian countries to enhance control and finance their news dissemination to ensure accurate and representative storytelling.
    • The reliance on foreign correspondents leads to misunderstanding and misrepresentation of societal issues, stressing the necessity for local journalism.

REFERENCES

  • McCombs, M.E. and Shaw, D.L., 1972. The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly.
  • Pitts, G., 2000. Democracy and press freedom in Zambia.
  • Padovani, C., 2008. New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO). The International Encyclopedia of Communication.
  • Croteau, D., Hoynes, W. and Hoynes, W.D., 2006. The business of media: Corporate media and the public interest.
  • Chirwa, C.H., 1997. Press freedom in Zambia during the MMD’s inaugural years.
  • McCombs, M., 2002, June. The agenda-setting role of mass media.