Henry VIII
3.1 Early Reign:
Henry fitted the physical ideals of a Tudor Monarch, he was tall and handsome, with broad shoulders and thick calves.
He also had the personality and interests of a ‘renaissance prince’, he enjoyed music, dancing and poetry.
Henry also loved jousting and wrestling, he fulfilled the chivalric ideals of a renaissance prince, in contrast to his father.
Henry’s interest in hunting and jousting was so profound that he had little interest in the administrative side of being King.
Henry was a big spender and became known as the ‘best dressed sovereign in Europe’. He also liked to be seen regularly in public. Both of these traits were a contrast from his father and both led to a vibrant, entertaining court. The nobles loved this and as a result, they posed less of a challenge to Henry than they had to his father.
In 1509, straight after Henry 7th’s death, Henry married Catherine of Aragon, showing that he had a sense of duty and that he was willing to make sacrifices for the good of the country.
He had Empson and Dudley executed, to show a break from his father’s reign, as they had been the most hated symbol of his father’s greed.
3.2 Wolsey’s rise to power:
Wolsey was of humble origins, born the son of an Ipswich butcher. Nobles resented his rise from the beginning, as they felt it challenged their right to be the King’s closest advisors.
Wolsey got his first degree from Oxford at the age of 15.
Took holy orders in 1498 and became chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury.
Sir Richard Nanfan brought him to the attention of Henry VII, who appointed him as chaplain in 1507 and later as Dean of Lincoln.
In the latter years of Henry VII’s reign he also served Bishop Fox of Winchester, where he was employed on small diplomatic missions to the Netherlands and Scotland. On these missions he stood out as an efficient administrator.
Wolsey first came to the attention of Henry VIII as a member of Bishop Fox’s entourage, but he quickly realised that he would never gain prominence promoting peace (as Fox did) when the King wanted war. Wolsey was a great flatterer and told the King what he wanted to hear, even when he personally disagreed with it.
Henry VIII grew tired of his father’s old councillors (Archbishop Warham and Bishop Fox) and was worried they wouldn’t approve of the changes that he wanted to implement. He was looking for new talent.
There were many talented nobles who were capable of serving Henry, but he did not trust them, as they had a potential claim to the throne. Examples include the Duke of Suffolk and the Percy family.
In 1509, Wolsey became Royal Almoner, which made him a member of the Royal Council. This gave him regular access to the King.
In 1513, Wolsey arranged an expeditionary force to invade France (despite the fact that he didn’t personally agree with the invasion), he arranged for over 12,000 men to set sail for Gascony.
In 1514, Wolsey became Bishop of Tournai and Bishop of Lincoln.
Later in 1514, Wolsey was made Archbishop of York.
In September 1515, he was made a cardinal.
Later in 1515, he was appointed to the position of Lord Chancellor (the top political position). This made it very difficult for other nobles to challenge him.
In 1518, Wolsey was made Legate a latere (Papal Legate), giving him the power to reform the Church and appoint benefices. By this point he was the most powerful man in England.
4.1 Early foreign policy:
Henry’s foreign policy aims were to achieve glory through war, to demonstrate that England was a major European power, to assert his claim to the French throne, to end any threat from Scotland and to secure his dynasty. Wolsey was more focused on trying to avoid war, as England could not afford it. He wanted to gain Henry glory through alternative means.
Henry wanted war in 1510, but his father’s old advisors, Archbishop Warham and Bishop Fox, were able to trick him into renewing the truce with France.
In 1512, Henry got his way and sent an army to France with the intention of taking Aquitaine. The army was short on supplies and Henry’s ally Ferdinand used Henry’s troops as a distraction in order to seize lands he wanted in the Pyrenees. They arrived back in England at the end of the campaign season having achieved nothing.
Henry led an army of 30,000 men across the channel to Calais in June 1513.
This campaign included the Battle of the Spurs (1513) and resulted in the capture of Therouanne and Tournai, as well as the capture of some important French nobles. This was a minor victory, but the English made it sound important.
Battle of Flodden = James IV of Scotland took advantage of Henry’s presence in France to launch an invasion of England.
Battle of Flodden = The Earl of Surrey led a smaller army to a huge victory against the Scots, killing most of the Scottish nobility and James IV himself. James V was only a boy and Henry’s sister Margaret was regent (in charge until James V came of age). This was a huge success.
Between 1511 and 1513, Henry spent £960,000. This compared to a yearly income of only £110,000.
Anglo-French Treaty (1514) = Leo X (new pope), Ferdinand (Spain) and Maximilian (HRE) all wanted peace and Henry couldn’t afford to carry on the war against France, he was forced to make peace. The French promised to pay the rest of the French pension (that Henry 7th negotiated), Henry kept his conquests and his sister (Mary) married Louis XII. When weighed against the cost of the war, this was a very modest outcome.
Louis XII died very soon after the treaty was signed and Henry’s sister remarried to the Duke of Suffolk. This was an embarrassment to Henry and it also meant that he could not use her in the marriage market.
Francis I (new King of France) was very successful in Europe and sent the Duke of Albany to overthrow Margaret’s government in Scotland.
Wolsey paid a secret subsidy to Maximilian to fight the French, but he took the money and sided with the French.
Wolsey tried to make an anti-French league, but this failed as Ferdinand died and was replaced by Charles. The peace of Cambrai (Spain, France, HRE), left England isolated and humiliated.
Treaty of London (1518) = Leo X wanted to call a crusade against the Turks, but Wolsey took over and modified the plans to suit himself.
Treaty of London (1518) = Wolsey did not allow Campeggio to enter the country until his position as Papal Legate had been confirmed.
Treaty of London (1518) = Guaranteed non-aggression between the major powers, ensured that any aggressor would be attacked by all the other states.
Treaty of London (1518) = Ensured that England would not be isolated in Europe, brought great prestige to England as the 20 foremost nations of Europe attended, Tournai was given back to France in return for a French pension, Henry’s daughter Mary was betrothed to the Dauphin and the Duke of Albany was kept out of Scotland.
Field of the Cloth of Gold (June 1520) = Over 3,000 important people from England and France met for feasts and tournaments. Wolsey impressed in organising the creation of royal pavilions, wine fountains etc. This was highly expensive and achieved little/nothing, though it did enhance English prestige.
In July 1521, Wolsey attempted to negotiate a peace at a three-way conference between the HRE and France, he then met again with Charles in August, signing the Treaty of Bruges and furthering England’s prestige.
In August 1523, an English force costing £400,000 was sent to France to team up with troops from the HRE and the Duke of Bourbon (French rebel). This was costly and achieved nothing.
Between 1511 and 1525, Henry spent £1.4 million fighting wars, he had squandered the secure financial position left to him by his father.
Diplomatic Revolution (February 1525) = Charles won a decisive victory against the French, taking Francis himself prisoner. Henry hoped to benefit from this, but Charles offered him nothing.
Treaty of More (1525) = Instead, Henry looked to France for a new alliance and agreed to give up his claim to the French throne in return for an annual pension.
Treaty of Cognac (May 1526) = Newly released Francis I worked with Wolsey to set up an anti-Habsburg (HRE) league. England financed it, but never joined. Ultimately this achieved nothing.
Treaty of Westminster (1527) = Cemented alliance with France and suggested a marriage between Mary and either Francis I, or his second son.
In 1527, Charles sacked Rome and Pope Clement VII was taken prisoner, this was a disaster for Wolsey, as he needed the Pope’s approval for Henry’s annulment of the marriage with Catherine. Charles V was Catherine’s nephew.
Wolsey tried to get the College of Cardinals to approve the annulment, as the Pope was in captivity, but Charles released him.
Wolsey started a trade embargo against Burgundy (part of HRE) in 1527, but this coincided with a failed harvest at home and was so unpopular that he had to drop it.
Wolsey declared war on the HRE in 1528, but soon realised that English military capability could not challenge Charles.
Wolsey considered another trade embargo against the low countries (part of the HRE), but realised that this would hurt England more than Charles.
Peace of Cambrai (August 1529) = Peace between France, HRE and the pope left England isolated and Wolsey with almost no chance of getting an annulment for Henry’s marriage.
5.1 Parliament/Financial:
Between 1510 and 1515, Henry called six parliamentary sessions to raise money for war.
Wolsey’s new tax, developed in 1513, was based on personal wealth. He used it 4 times from 1513-16 and raised £170,000.
The old tax of Fifteenths and Tenths raised only £90,000 from three uses.
Income from crown lands had reduced from a high point of £400,000 a year in Henry VII’s reign, to only £25,000. This was a result of the extensive patronage Henry VIII offered in order to increase the numbers of nobles.
Wolsey passed an Act of Resumption in 1515 to reclaim some of the crown lands that had been lost, but this only went some of the way to plugging the gap.
Wolsey only summoned parliament once, in 1523, he asked for loans to fund Henry’s foreign policy, but when it became clear that he could not control them, he simply didn’t call them again.
In the 1523 parliament, Wolsey asked for a subsidy of four shillings in the pound, which would bring in £800,000. This caused an outcry. Eventually Wolsey got a subsidy, but it was not at the rate he wanted and only raised £300,000. He also used up any goodwill he had with the nobles and had to give up his policies on enclosure.
Wolsey raised £322,000 in subsidies, £240,000 in clerical taxation and £260,000 in forced loans. But this did not cover the £1.7 million that was spent between 1509 and 1520, mostly on war.
5.2 Law:
From 1515 (when he became Lord Chancellor), Wolsey was in charge of the Court of the Star Chamber and the Court of Chancery. He expanded both massively.
Wolsey oversaw almost 9,000 court cases, including 120 a year in the Star Court alone. This compared to only a few dozen a year during Henry VII’s reign.
Wolsey did not reform the Star Court bureaucratically.
Both rich and poor citizens were allowed to bring cases before the Star Court, so John Guy (historian) has viewed it as impartial.
Wolsey sent the Earl of Northumberland to Fleet prison in 1515, antagonising the nobles further.
In 1516, Wolsey increased monitoring of the nobility and announced in the Star Chamber that they should not consider themselves above the law.
Wolsey accused Lord Burgavenny of illegal retaining in 1516.
Wolsey set up a special committee in Westminster in 1519 to hear cases from poor people and make the court system more accessible to them.
Wolsey also used his position for his own benefit. He forced Sir Amyas Paulet (who put him in the stocks when he started as a priest) to appear before him daily. He threatened that Paulet would lose his property if he left London without permission.
Wolsey summoned the Duke of Buckingham to London in 1521 and convicted him of treason. He was executed and foreign ambassadors claimed that his only crime had been ‘murmurings against the chancellor’s doings’.
York Place and Hampton Court were magnets for ambitious nobles seeking promotion and not all nobles feared Wolsey. The Earl of Worcester considered Wolsey a friend. It is possible to argue that Wolsey employed a ‘carrot and stick’ method towards to nobility in a way that was not dissimilar to that of Henry VII.
5.3 Amicable Grant:
This was a non-refundable contribution to Henry’s wars, that was demanded in 1525.
This followed a period of high taxation (two forced loans of 1522-23 worth £200,000 were still being paid back and Wolsey’s subsidy of 1523 was still being collected) and popular revolts sprang up in Suffolk, London and Kent.
In East Anglia, 10,000 men assembled in Lavenham in opposition to Wolsey’s demands.
The Dukes of Suffolk and Norfolk told Wolsey that the money could not be collected and the Grant had to be dropped.
Wolsey took the blame for the Amicable Grant, as Henry claimed he had no knowledge of it. This reduced Wolsey’s standing and made him even less popular with the nobles. However, no one really believed that the King had nothing to do with it and Henry’s prestige was also reduced.
5.4 Enclosure:
There was deep concern that enclosure was leading to depopulation. This lead to three acts of parliament in 1489, 1514 and 1515.
Wolsey set up an enclosure commission in 1517-18, which identified land enclosed land, buildings that had been demolished and land that had been converted from arable to pasture. The findings were used in the Court of Chancery to help enforce the Acts of Parliament.
From 1518-29, legal action was taken against 264 people, of whom 222 were brought to court and 188 verdicts were reached, including: 9 nobles, 3 bishops, 32 knights, 51 heads of religious houses and several Oxford colleges.
Wolsey’s work on enclosure did not benefit him personally and it made him extremely unpopular with the nobles.
When Wolsey called parliament in 1523, they would only agree to a parliamentary subsidy (money for Henry’s wars), if he stopped his anti-enclosure work. So ultimately it achieved nothing.
5.5 The Church:
Hunne Affair (1515) = Hunne was a rich London merchant, who challenged the Church in the law courts, as he had to pay high mortuary fees after the death of his infant son.
Hunne Affair (1515) = The Church responded by accusing him of heresy. He was put in prison, where he waited for his trial.
Hunne Affair (1515) = Hunne was found dead in prison. After his death the Church found him guilty of all charges and seized his property.
Hunne Affair (1515) = Merchants in London were outraged and accused the Church of making up heresy charges, having Hunne murdered, then finding him guilty of false charges just so they could seize his property. The parliament of 1515 was focused on this issue and there was widespread anti-clericalism, which did not reflect well on Wolsey.
Henry Standish also attacked the ‘Benefit of the clergy’ (members of the clergy could be tried in their own courts, where they got more lenient sentences), in the same parliament of 1515. This was renewed, but Wolsey had to swear to Henry personally that Royal power held sway over ecclesiastical. It was due to this anti-clericalism that Wolsey did not want to call parliament again and they were not called again until 1523.
Wolsey held an Ecclesiastical Council in York in 1518 that discussed ways of improving the conduct of the provincial clergy. This achieved nothing though and could be seen as a scheme to try and impress the Pope in the run up to his appointment as Papal Legate.
As Papal Legate from 1518, Wolsey was the most powerful church man in England, even more powerful than Warham (Archbishop of Canterbury).
Wolsey used his position as Papal Legate to form his own probate courts, which he used to increase his own personal wealth.
The biggest problem in the Church was pluralism and Wolsey himself held the archbishopric of York, bishopric of Winchester and the abbey of St Albans at the same time. He also never once visited his sees of Lincoln, Bath and Wells, and Durham. He only went to York after he fell from power.
Wolsey also appointed non-resident Italians to Bishoprics. They never came to England, but he still paid them a stipend and kept the rest of the money to fund his own lifestyle.
Another problem with the Church was a lack of celibacy and Wolsey had two illegitimate children. He even used ecclesiastical patronage to support his illegitimate son, Thomas Winter. His daughter was placed in a nunnery.
A third problem in the Church was wealth and extravagance. Wolsey’s building work at Hampton Court Palace and his expensive red robes indicated that he was not a reformer.
Senior churchmen across Europe indulged in simony, nepotism and pluralism and had done for hundreds of years. In many ways these abuses were considered to be a part of the position and Wolsey did not attract as much criticism from contemporaries as we might expect.
Wolsey investigated setting up thirteen new Bishoprics, funded by the closure of monasteries, but by 1529 this had come to nothing.
Wolsey ordered legatine visitations of the monasteries and he personally visited over 60 religious houses and Cathedral Chapters in 1519. He also acted on what was found to enact some meaningful reform. Abbots and monks that were found not to be following the monastic lifestyle were replaced, statutes were drawn up for the Benedictines and Augustinians.
Wolsey closed 29 religious houses (monasteries) and used the money to build Cardinal College in Oxford and a grammar school in Ipswich. This seemed like good work by Wolsey, but was only really done to promote his own position and reputation in the Tudor court.
Wolsey managed to tax the clergy at a rate that was even higher than Henry VII.
5.6 The King’s Court:
Henry VIII built up a large group of young nobles in his privy chamber, known as ‘Henry’s minions’. They had access to him at all times and helped him govern.
In 1519, Wolsey expelled them from the privy chamber, claiming that they were leading Henry astray. They returned later that year.
Henry’s French wars limited the influence of his minions from 1522-25, but when he returned to England they regained their power.
Wolsey introduced the Eltham Ordinances in 1526, which sought to reduce the number of Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber from 12 to 6. This was supposedly to save money, but Wolsey selected the 6 most politically active gentlemen to remove, increasing his own influence over Henry.
The Eltham Ordinances were short-lived and by mid-1527, many of the more political members of the Privy Chamber had managed to get their jobs back, as a result of the political drama unfolding with the rise of Anne Boleyn and the fall of Wolsey.
6.1 A matter of conscience:
Pope Julius grants a Papal dispensation allowing the marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon in 1503. There were doubts about whether the Pope had the right to grant such a dispensation, especially if the marriage had been consummated.
Henry had been married to Catherine for almost 18 years (from June 1509 – May 1527), before he ordered Wolsey to pursue an annulment. If his objection was purely a moral/religious one, then why did it take him so long to act? Why did he choose to go forward with the marriage in the first place?
The French questioned the legitimacy of Henry’s marriage to Catherine as part of marriage negotiations for Mary in 1528.
Henry was extremely religious and his copy of the Bible was heavily annotated.
Henry was granted the title of ‘Defender of the Faith’ by the Pope for his criticism of Martin Luther (prominent protestant). This proves his religious conviction.
Henry believed that his marriage to Catherine was against God’s law, as it violated Leviticus 20:21. The Latin version says ‘If a man shall take his brother’s wife, it is an unclean thing…they shall be without children’. This did not apply to Henry, as he had Mary, but the original Hebrew version replaced ‘children’ with ‘sons’. Henry believed that this was a judgement on him and that his marriage offended God.
6.2 A legitimate heir:
1516 – Mary Tudor is born.
Catherine of Aragon had several miscarriages and two stillborn babies. Her last pregnancy was in 1518.
In 1524 Henry stopped sleeping with Catherine, who was now 39 years old.
There were questions over whether a female could inherit the throne and Henry was worried about potential unrest in the event of his death. There were descendants of Edward IV who were still alive and could have tried to claim the throne, ending the Tudor dynasty.
Charles V rejected the possibility of a proposed marriage to Mary (Henry’s daughter) in 1525.
Henry made his illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy, the Duke of Richmond later in 1525, many saw this as a reaction to Charles’ rejection.
Fitzroy was also sent to run the Council of the North in order to gain experience of government, compounding doubts over whether Henry believed Mary to be an appropriate heir.
Henry Fitzroy was the product of one of Henry’s many mistresses, including Elizabeth Blount and Anne’s own sister Mary.
The French questioned the legitimacy of Henry’s marriage to Catherine as part of marriage negotiations for Mary in 1528.
December 1532 – Anne Boleyn became pregnant.
January 1533 – Henry and Anne marry in secret.
6.3 Love for Anne Boleyn:
Henry began to woo Anne Boleyn in 1526.
Easter 1527, Henry tried to persuade Anne to become his mistress, he was happy not to marry her at this stage. Secret arrangements for the annulment began in May.
July 1527 – Henry and Anne agree to marry when the annulment is complete.
September 1528 – Anne was sent to Hever Castle to get her out of the way. She returned in December, as Henry wanted her back in court, evidence of his infatuation with her.
In 1527, at the age of 36 and despite the fact that he hated writing, Henry VIII wrote Anne Boleyn a series of passionate love letters, proving his infatuation with her. ‘Henceforth, my heart shall be dedicate to you alone’ – Henry.
In February 1529, Campeggio claimed that Henry’s love was ‘something amazing and in fact he sees nothing and thinks nothing but Anne. He cannot stay away from her for an hour; it is really quite pitiable, and on it depends his life, and indeed the destruction or survival of this kingdom’.
6.4 Failure to obtain an annulment:
May 1527, Charles V sacks Rome and takes the Pope prisoner.
June 1527 – Henry informs Catherine of his plans to get an annulment.
Wolsey had nothing to gain from Anne’s ascension to Queen. She was much more political than Catherine and he knew that her rise would challenge his own power. Some historians argue that he purposely slowed down the process in order to allow Henry’s infatuation with Anne to fade. The Boleyn faction recognised this and this put them on opposing sides.
However, Wolsey was also intelligent enough to know that Anne would not simply disappear. He had achieved the power he had by pleasing Henry and there is little evidence to indicate that he purposely sabotaged the annulment process, the circumstances were just against him.
September 1527 – Henry appeals to the Pope for an annulment.
1527 – Wolsey tries to hold a council of Archbishops to pronounce on the case, as the Pope is imprisoned, but the French cardinals refuse to agree.
December 1527 – The Pope is technically released, but Charles V still has complete control over him.
April 1528 – Pope Clement grants Wolsey’s request to have the case heard in England, but insists that Campeggio is there to head the commission.
October 1528 – Cardinal Campeggio arrived in England to act as judge on behalf of the Pope. He was under orders not to come to a judgement.
The opening of court is delayed by the discovery of the ‘Spanish Brief’. The Spanish claimed that it contained no clerical error, but refused to send it to England. This ruined Wolsey’s plan of trying to claim that the marriage was invalid due to a technicality (clerical error).
31 March 1529 – Legatine Court finally begins; Campeggio is still under strict orders not to decide on the case.
July 1529 – A summer recess was called in the proceedings and Campeggio was recalled to Rome by the Pope. The Pope was under the complete control of Charles V at this point.
August 1529 – The Treaty of Cambrai ensures that Charles will remain dominant in Italy, the case is recalled to Rome, meaning that no progress has been made whatsoever.
The King was now persuaded that the Boleyn faction had been correct and Wolsey had no intention of helping him obtain an annulment. Wolsey had promised a quick resolution and it had been two years. Henry’s patience had run out.
October 1529 – Wolsey was accused of praemunire, forced to give up the Great Seal and replaced as Lord Chancellor by Thomas More.
Parliament was summoned to indict Wolsey on 44 different charges.
Wolsey was able to live in comfort during his exile in York.
He was finally arrested on 4th November 1530 for sending indiscreet letters to Rome. He was ordered to London, but he could not be executed, as he died on 29 November 1530 in Leicester, on his way to London.
7.1 Condition of the Church before the reformation - Bad:
In 1511, John Colet, Dean of St Paul’s preached a sermon attacking abuses within the Church and accusing the clergy of being ambitious and greedy.
Pluralism was common. For example, Thomas Magnus was Archdeacon of the East Riding of Yorkshire, canon at Windsor and Lincoln, Master of St Leonard’s Hospital in York, Master of the College of St Sepulchre and Sibthorpe College, vicar of Kendal and rector of Bedale, Sessay and Kirby.
The Hunne Case (1514) and the Standish Affair provide evidence of anti-clericalism and clerical abuses of power, which spilt over into parliament in 1515. Though such instances were rare.
The Church had come under serious attack in central Europe, with the publication of Martin Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517. But Lutheranism attracted little support in England, with only a small group of Cambridge scholars interested in his ideas.
There was some evidence of Lollardy (followers of a 14th Century Oxford clergyman, whose ideas were similar to Luther) around the Chiltern Hills, but this was a fringe group and there was no national organisation.
There was some evidence of disquiet at the payment of tithes, particularly in the South- East and London, which could explain why these areas were more susceptible to reform.
The popularity of religious orders had reduced, with falling numbers at monasteries and nunneries. The number of new abbeys, priories and friaries being built was lower than previous centuries.
7.2 Condition of the Church before the reformation – Good:
Ordination rates for clergy remained high.
The Church remained the centre of village life, with agricultural festivals, like rogationtide and church ales highly popular.
Archbishop Warham’s visitation of 260 parishes in Kent in 1511-12 found that only four priests were ignorant.
In urban areas, the literate celebrated Catholicism, with 37 editions of The Primer (a devotional work), between 1501 and 1520 and a further 41 editions between 1521 and 1530.
Large scale church building projects continued to be supported by parishioners in the run up to the reformation, with £305 spent on a new staple in Louth, Lincolnshire. It is unlikely local people would have contributed if they had seen the Church as corrupt.
Parishioners continued to contribute towards the purchase of images to aid prayer. In the Devon parish of Morebath this continued until Elizabeth’s reign.
Religious guilds were still widely supported, with 57% of people who made wills in Devon and Cornwall leaving money to them between 1520 and 1529.
7.3 Initial Break from Rome:
May 1530 – Oxford and Cambridge universities both found in favour of Henry, arguing that the Pope had no right to grant a dispensation for Henry’s marriage with Catherine.
1530 – English clerics, including Thomas Cranmer and Foxe put together the Collectinea Satis Copiosa, which states that English Kings have always had more authority that the Pope.
1531 – 7 European universities support the Levitical line that the Pope had no right to grant a dispensation. Most had been bribed to support the case.
1531 – The clergy are forced to pay a fine for endorsing Wolsey’s Papal post and are accused of praemunire, putting pressure on the Pope.
February 1531 – The Convocation of Canterbury recognised Henry as the Supreme Head of the Church.
May 1532 – Submission of the Clergy = The clergy accepted the King as their lawmaker, rather than the Pope.
April 1533 – Cranmer (Archbishop of Canterbury) ruled that Henry’s marriage to Catherine was invalid, whereas his marriage to Anne was legal.
May 1533 – Anne Boleyn was crowned Queen of England.
7.4 Henry in control:
Collected opinions from universities on the ‘Great Matter’.
Charges whole clergy with preamunire, and then Pardons them - in 1531 Pardon of the Clergy H8 insists on being referred to as Supreme Head of the English Church.
Submission of the Clergy- 15th May 1532- legislative independence of the Church surrendered to the Crown.
Henry does extensive research into the matter of supremacy- ‘a student’.
Henry overrides papal authority in appointing Bishops in England with Bill of Annates. This was made conditional, showing H8 still holding out hope that the Pope will allow annulment.
With legal Supremacy in place, H8 looks to exploit the wealth of the Church, e.g. new payments to the crown.
7.5 Cranmer in control:
Helped put together Collecianea satis copiosa - writings referring to ancient manuscripts supporting idea of King as head of state.
Rapid rise (over Stephen Gardiner) shows H8’s need to appoint a sympathetic cleric quickly - Papal Bull from Rome did allow Cranmer's consecration.
Actually performs marriage of Anne and Henry.
Head of new court of Appeals in Dunstable – appeals to Rome now go here, so he can deal with them.
Act in Restraint of Appeals 1533 means May 1533 Henry & Catherine’s marriage declared void.
Act of Dispensations 1534 - stops all payments to Rome. All future dispensations allowing for exemptions or departments from Church law need to be issued by the Archbishop of Canterbury (or Praemunire charge).
7.6 Cromwell in control:
1532- Cromwell introduces a petition against Church Courts and clerical jurisdiction into the Commons (Commons Supplication Against Ordinaries).
Cromwell convinces the Commons it is their idea, but really they are supporting H8’s attack on the independence of the Church in law.
Use of new Treason Act (1534) – made it offence to slander Supremacy or deny king’s new title - treason is now in word and deed. 300 people were put to death with this act between 1532 and 1540. Cromwell used it as an instrument of terror.
Cromwell commissioned to carry out survey of Church wealth – power to reform Church.
7.7 Monasteries - Corruption:
Records of visitations from the 1520s – before the Break with Rome, show that most houses were well-disciplined: silence was observed and good works were carried out in the community.
The reaction to the dissolution in the North – the 1536 Pilgrimage of Grace rebellion was caused by anger at the dissolution of monasteries – suggests that monasteries were popular and effective in their roles before the Reformation.
At Hailes Abbey in Gloucestershire, they claimed to have one of the holiest relics in the World, a vial of the blood of Christ. When it was examined, this was just a vial of honey, coloured with saffron.
In some monasteries moral standards had indeed slipped. At Rievaulx Abbey in Yorkshire, the abbot (head of the abbey) slept in his own private quarters and every monk had his own servant.
7.8 Monasteries – Money:
The Valor Ecclesiasticus (1535) revealed that the total income of religious houses was over £160,000 a year, more than three times the income from royal estates.
In 1536, Thomas Cromwell told Henry VIII he would make him the ‘richest prince in Christendom’ by dissolving the monasteries.
Henry took £1.3 million in wealth from the dissolution of the monasteries.
After the break from Rome, Henry needed money to protect against a Catholic crusade. Many of the larger monasteries had incomes of more than £1,000 a year and this money was used to build fortifications on the South coast.
Some of the money made from dissolving the monasteries did not go to Henry and instead went to build new cathedral grammar schools in Canterbury and Chester, as well as new colleges at universities.
7.9 Monasteries – Religious Opposition:
Monks and nuns devoted much of their time to prayer for the souls of the dead, a practice deemed unnecessary by Protestants.
Protestants did not believe in the value of religious houses and all monasteries had been dissolved in Protestant areas of Germany and Scandinavia.
Monasteries held an allegiance to the main house of their order, which was usually outside England. This challenged the idea in the Act in Restraint of Appeals, that England was supreme.
Henry did not subscribe to the Protestant critique of the monasteries. He even refounded two monasteries in the 1540s to say prayers for him and his family.
7.10 Opposition to the Reformation:
Elizabeth Barton = Had visions of the Virgin Mary and was regarded as the true messenger by Archbishop Warham, gaining popular support.
Elizabeth Barton = During the quest for an annulment Barton began to prophesy that Henry would lose his throne, Barton gained additional support from people such as Bishop Fisher.
Elizabeth Barton = She was arrested in November 1533 and executed along with 4 followers on 21st April 1534, the same day Londoners were required to make an oath swearing to support the succession.
Thomas More = More accepted the Royal Supremacy but refused to swear that the King had always been the head of the church and that parliament was simply reasserting Henry’s rights. He was held in the Tower along with Fisher until the Treason Act of 1534 made it possible to charge him.
Thomas More = More was one of the most respected scholars in Europe, and a close friend of Henry. He had always opposed the Great Matter but was willing to work for Henry so long as he could remain uninvolved. As the Reformation went forward this was impossible. Following the Submission of the Clergy More resigned as Lord Chancellor and tried to retire from public affairs.
Thomas More = Cromwell and Cranmer tried to save More, but Henry insisted he take the Oath of Succession in 1534. In the end More was found guilty of speaking out against the Supremacy and executed. During his trial More attacked Henry’s tyrannical nature, his trial was an embarrassment to the crown and his execution of 6 July 1535 did little for the crowns reputation.
Bishop Fisher = Fisher was the only Bishop to oppose the Supremacy to such a degree that he was executed. Other Bishops (Tunstall and Warham) spoke out about the Supremacy but ultimately fell into line.
Bishop Fisher = Fisher refused to change his support for Catherine, and wrote and preached in her defence. When Fisher was implicated in the Barton affair, Henry struck, however Fisher was only let off with a £300 fine – it was more difficult to execute a Bishop than a maid.
Bishop Fisher = In 1534 when forced to swear the Oath of Succession, which showed disagreement with Henry’s first marriage and the papal supremacy, Fisher refused. He was imprisoned in the Tower.
Bishop Fisher = As Fisher was a close correspondent of the Imperial Ambassador Chapuys, Chapuys intervened on Fisher’s behalf, writing to Charles. In May 1535 Pope Paul III announced Fisher would be made a Cardinal, before his hat arrived he was found guilty of high treason and executed in June 1535.
The Religious Orders = First Henry faced criticism from the Franciscan monks and their houses at Richmond and Greenwich, though this was quickly quashed after the Treason Act of 1534 when all seven of their houses were shut down. About thirty Franciscan monks were arrested and died in prison.
The Religious Orders = The Bridgettine nuns and their brothers across the river at Syon also opposed Henry and his biggest fear was that the orders would unite against him, as many had their headquarters in London and they could easily gain widespread support there.
The Religious Orders = The Carthusians were known to be the least corrupt of the Holy orders, which gave their opposition greater impetus and meant Henry dealt with them harshly. In April 1535, 3 monks were arrested for denying the supremacy. They were all executed, becoming martyrs.
The Religious Orders = After this all Carthusian monks united in speaking out against Henry and over the space of three years, 18 more were arrested and either executed, or starved to death in prison.
The Religious Orders = Eventually the Carthusians gave in and swore an oath of allegiance to Henry. But their treatment was valuable propaganda for Catholics abroad, who were able to point to Henry’s brutal repression of one of the most Holy orders.
7.11 The Pilgrimage of Grace:
Evidence rising was religious = In Westmorland a rebel army rose up when the priests failed to announce a Holy day. In Craven they rose up to defend Sawley Abbey. Aske claimed that the dissolution of the monasteries was ‘the greatest cause’. The rebels restored monks to their monasteries. In Lancashire the rising began around the monasteries and these were the last areas to be suppressed. Most of the rebel demands focused on religious issues. The Pilgrim Oath and Ballad of the rising stressed the religious element and their banner was of the Five Wounds of Christ.
Evidence rising was not religious = Poor harvests in 1535 and 1536. Enclosure was an issue in areas near York and the Lake District. There were complaints about the scale of rents and entry fines. Taxation during peace time had been brought in by the 1534 Subsidy Act. There was opposition to the Statute of Uses from the nobility, which was a tax on inheritance. Complaints about Cromwell and Henry’s other advisors were included in rebel demands. Supporters of Catherine of Aragon and Princess Mary saw rebellion as the only way to influence things.
In October 1536 a rising in Lincolnshire, sparked by the closure of the monasteries and the enforcement of religious changes. It spread into Yorkshire, where it became known collectively as the Pilgrimage of Grace. The original Lincolnshire articles reflect the anti-Reformation nature of the first part of the rebellion.
This led into the Pilgrimage of Grace proper, from 8th Oct to 8th Dec most of the North was in open rebellion against Henry with 40,000 men getting involved, at this point the King had an army of 8000, so the rebels outnumbered him 5:1.
The men were grouped in ‘host’ armies under the leadership of Robert Aske, a lawyer who provided strong leadership. They were able to capture York, which was the main Northern city and then Lord Darcy handed over Pontefract Castle, a key castle in the King’s control of the North. The rebellion had support from all social classes.
Henry had to play for time getting the Duke of Norfolk to negotiate at first while he gathered more support. Norfolk offered a general pardon and Aske insisted the monasteries not be closed down before the next parliament. An agreement was reached and the rebels dispersed.
Bigod Revolt and Cumberland Rising = From 16th January – 10th February 1537, unsatisfied rebels again rose up, led by Sir Francis Bigod, however they were unsuccessful and lacked support. Bigod was arrested in Cumberland, many others including Aske and Darcy were rounded up and executed. The death toll reached 178.
7.12 Cromwell’s rise to power:
Of common birth in Putney, probably born after 1485.
Stated to Cranmer what a ‘ruffian he was in his young days’; he may even have spent some time in prison.
He left England to travel to the continent (may have been a result of trouble with the law, or a dispute with his father).
While riding from France to Italy, he was able to memorise the entire New Testament, demonstrating both his religious convictions and his keen mind.
Joined the French army and fought in the Battle of Garigliano, Italy in December 1503.
Settled in Italy and worked for a merchant banker named Francesco Frescobaldi.
After leaving Frescobaldi, he travelled to the Netherlands and worked as a cloth merchant. He managed to get several important contacts through this and learned several different languages.
He regularly returned to Italy, where he may have received some legal training, though he received little formal education of any kind.
He returned to England in 1515 and began working in London as a business agent, which involved legal work and moneylending.
Cromwell was successful and while he was working for Charles Knyvett, who had connections with Edward Stafford (third Duke of Buckingham), he came to the attention of Cardinal Wolsey.
In 1523 he entered the House of Commons for the first time and a year later he was appointed as Wolsey’s legal advisor.
In the 1520s he managed to perform his work for Wolsey, whilst simultaneously building up his own thriving private legal practice, showing his energy and skill.
Between 1526 and 1529, Cromwell rose to be one of Wolsey’s most trusted advisors.
His instinct for survival led him to leave Wolsey’s service right before his fall from power.
After Wolsey’s fall he secured a nomination to the vacant parliamentary seat of Taunton, with the help of one of his contacts, Sir William Paulet.
As an MP, Cromwell defended his old master in Westminster, demonstrating his loyalty. Henry was impressed by this.
Cromwell was also able to untangle many of Wolsey’s complex legal affairs, again impressing Henry.
Cromwell was also helped by the fact that he had a number of friends who were close to Henry, including Bishop Stephen Gardiner and Thomas Heanage.
To start with, Cromwell accumulated a number of minor state offices, from this lowly vantage point he was able to build up a holistic picture of the way the administrative system worked.
He started to impress the King informally by coming up with solutions to problems e.g. the Great Matter, that more experienced/high status ministers were unable to solve.
He approached the Boleyn faction to try and ally himself with them, but they were unwilling to work with anyone who had been close to Wolsey.
Cromwell recognised the untapped potential of the minor post – Principal Secretary to the King. He volunteered to deputise in this position whilst its current incumbent was on business abroad, then he asked the King to dismiss them and appoint him permanently, this occurred in April 1534.
By doing this, Cromwell was able to bypass all of the normal channels of elevating one’s position in office and gain a position that was close to the King, purely through a word of mouth instruction.
7.13 Religious reform:
1532- Cromwell introduces a petition against Church Courts and clerical jurisdiction into the Commons (Commons Supplication Against Ordinaries).
Cromwell convinces the Commons it is their idea, but really they are supporting H8’s attack on the independence of the Church in law.
Use of new Treason Act (1534) – made it an offence to slander Supremacy or deny king’s new title - treason is now in word and deed. It was also illegal to fail to report anyone who spoke out against the King’s new position (called misprison). 300 people were put to death with this act between 1532 and 1540. Cromwell used it as an instrument of terror.
Cromwell commissioned to carry out survey of Church wealth – power to reform Church.
10 Articles (1536) = Included only the three sacraments approved by Protestants (baptism, the Eucharist and penance), the other four were simply lost,
Bishop’s Book (September 1537) = Failed to confirm Catholic practices e.g. transubstantiation was not mentioned, Mass was glossed over, special status of priests was understated and purgatory was not covered in detail.
Bishop’s Book (September 1537) = However, this did include the four sacraments that had been previously lost and Henry marked that it should only be published in the name of the bishops, not in his name, reducing its influence.
Bishop’s Book (September 1537) = Four Catholic sacraments were explicitly said to be of lesser value than the other three and this was shown as a clear development towards Protestantism.
English Bibles (1537) = It was ordained, thanks to Cromwell, that all parishes had to have an English bible within two years. Cromwell organised this task, which was roughly equal in terms of organisation and effort to mounting a military campaign.
**Second set of General Injunctions (1538) = Explicitly stated that relics of saints should be removed from churches and people should be discouraged from going on pilgrimages. This led to the dismantling of the Shrine of St Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral.
Act of Six Articles (May 1539) = Henry called a House of Lords Committee, which was evenly divided with reformists and conservatives. However, Henry had already shown that his own beliefs were largely conservative.
Act of Six Articles (May 1539) = This reasserted the four lost sacraments and included severe penal clauses backing it up. Denial of Transubstantiation was to be punished with automatic burning, which was even harsher than it had been pre-reformation. Cromwell’s religious changes had largely been undone in one strike.
7.14 Government:
Cromwell was not able to control Royal Patronage in the same way that Wolsey did, but he was able to ensure that the projects and ambitions of nobles relied on his goodwill.
Following the disgrace of the Boleyn faction in spring 1536, Cromwell was able to secure the appointment of many of his own servants (e.g. Peter Mewtis and Anthony Denny), into key government positions.
In July 1536, Cromwell was given the position of Lord Privy Seal and raised to the peerage as Baron Cromwell.
In the course of 1538-39, Cromwell was able to plant charges of treason against the Marquess of Exeter, Sir Edward Neville and Sir Nicholas Carew. He also discredited Sir Anthony Browne and Sir Francis Bryan. This destroyed the Boleyn faction entirely and severely weakened the conservative faction, leaving Cromwell free to rule how he saw fit.
Privy Council = Cromwell orchestrated the change from a large privy council (70-90 members), to a far more efficient council of 20 members. This was far more efficient in times of crisis e.g. The Pilgrimage of Grace and can be seen as a change towards modern government.
Privy Council = Some historians argue that it was Wolsey who began the move towards a more efficient privy council with the Eltham Ordinances. Though this can be dismissed, as Wolsey’s chief advisor at the time was Cromwell.
Cromwell increased the workload of parliament substantially. The laws passed in the 251 years before his reign cover 1,094 pages, but during the 37 years of Henry VIII’s reign, 1,032 pages of laws were passed.
Between 1536 and 1543, the semi-independent power of the Marcher Lordships in Wales was ended and it was split into shires, just like England.
The Council of Wales was also given extra powers to govern the region properly, bringing Wales under the control of government.
However, Cromwell’s attempts to increase the power of central government over the North and West of England were largely unsuccessful, as he had no choice but to rely on the goodwill of the local gentry, who acted as JPs.
Cromwell insisted on correct use of the legal system, even when it ran counter to his aims. For example, of the 883 people who were charged with treason during his time of power, only 329 (about 40%) were actually executed. Many were able to get off on legal technicalities.
7.15 Financial:
Cromwell was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1533.
Cromwell promised to make Henry the ‘richest prince in Christendom’ with the closing of the monasteries. This ultimately made Henry £1.3 million.
Cromwell set up departments to administer the crown’s sources of income. These were much more accurate and efficient and were modelled on the Duchy of Lancaster (an existing department).
The most famous of these were the Court of First Fruits and Tenths and the Court of Augmentations. These were set up to deal with the new wealth that was coming to the King via the Church. They were called courts because they also had the legal power to settle disputes over how much should be paid.
Cromwell succeeded in reducing the power of the King’s Chamber and increasing the power of the Court of Exchequer (which he controlled). Some historians argue that his reorganisation of Royal finances was done purely to increase his own power and was not designed to modernise finances at all.
Cromwell oversaw a general survey of coastal defences, which led to the building of new defences around Calais, at a cost of £376,477. This ultimately achieved nothing, as no Catholic crusade occurred.
On 12th April 1540, Cromwell persuaded parliament to agree to peacetime taxation worth £214,065 over four years.
7.16 Cromwell’s fall from power:
Jane Seymour only survived childbirth by 12 days. Henry looked to arrange a marriage to the Duchess of Milan, or a French princess, but this was curtailed by the Treaty of Toledo.
Cromwell persuaded a reluctant Henry to seek marriage with a German noblewoman in order to negotiate an alliance with the Protestant League of Schmalkalden. This led to a treaty signed at Hampton Court in October 1539, between Henry VIII and Duke William of Cleves.
Henry married Anne of Cleves (under protest) on 6th January 1540.
Cromwell’s main enemies in the Privy Council were the Conservative faction. Including the Duke of Norfolk, Bishop Tunstall, Sir William Fitzwilliam, Lord Sandes and Sir Anthony Browne.
Gardiner was temporarily in disgrace and Cromwell managed to exclude him from the Privy Council in 1539.
When Lambert was burned at the stake, it showed how conservative the King’s views actually were and this persuaded the Earl of Sussex, Sir John Russell, Sir Thomas Cheyney and Sir William Kingston to join on the side of the conservatives, leaving Cromwell and Cranmer isolated.
Act of Six Articles = Henry planned to create a religious settlement of his own choosing, calling parliament together on 28th April 1539.
Act of Six Articles = On 5th May Henry asked the House of Lords for a committee to work on it. Cromwell was appointed chairman, but he could not oppose the King.
Act of Six Articles = Cromwell tried to distract the King by seeking another peacetime subsidy, but this failed and the Duke of Norfolk took charge.
Act of Six Articles = Endorsed transubstantiation, claimed the laity could not take communion in both kinds, claimed that vows of chastity must be followed, claimed that private masses should continue, claimed that priests could not marry and that auricular confession was necessary. All of these conservative views were endorsed by the King and passed by parliament. This completely reversed huge swathes of Cromwell’s religious policy.
Act of Six Articles = Strict penal clauses were adopted to enforce the law. Denial of transubstantiation became punishable by automatic burning, even the pre-1534 heresy law had permitted one recantation. Protestants called this ‘the whip with six strings’. Dozens of Protestants were imprisoned or burned.
The Act of Precedence advanced Cromwell’s position personally and highlighted his importance, but it also specifically named the positions that were included in the Privy Council, forcing Cromwell to accept that his rivals were officially members of the council.
Cromwell was able to fight back after this disastrous parliament, in April 1540 he assumed leadership of the Privy Chamber, persuaded the King to make him Earl of Essex and appoint him as Lord Great Chamberlain (the highest court office). He then packed the Privy Chamber with his own supporters, to offset his disadvantage in the Privy Council.
Cromwell then tried to take the centre ground, condemning the rashness of the radicals and the superstition of the traditionalists. He appointed committees to look into reforming the Bishop’s Book.
The Duke of Norfolk travelled to the French Court in February 1540 and persuaded the French that they would be in a better bargaining position if Cromwell were eliminated.
The discord between France and Spain reduced the chance of a Catholic crusade against England and made the treaty with Cleves unnecessary.
Cromwell was blamed for exaggerating the beauty of Anne of Cleves, who Henry called the ‘Flanders Mare’.
Henry’s choice for his fifth wife was Catherine Howard, the niece of the Duke of Norfolk. As such, Cromwell hesitated in arranging Henry’s divorce, which should in theory have been easy given that the marriage was unconsummated.
Norfolk discovered in Spring 1539 that Cromwell had been harbouring over sixty Protestants. The King ordered a full enquiry and the report showed that Cromwell was not enforcing the Act of Six Articles.
Cromwell’s position was so weak he met with Gardiner for dinner and attempted to reconcile with him. At this point Gardiner was about to be readmitted to the Privy Council.
Sir Gregory Botolf defected to Rome and Cromwell tried to use this Botolf Conspiracy to shift blame onto Norfolk, claiming that his accusers were simply involved in the conspiracy and trying to turn Henry against him.
By this time Henry was in excruciating pain from the ulcers that covered his legs and feet. This pain led to bouts of anger and frustration, which could often cloud his judgement and lead him to lash out at those closest to him.
Ultimately, all of Cromwell’s machinations fell apart, as he had not obtained a divorce for the King. He was arrested in June 1540 and the significance of the divorce is clear, as the evidence needed for Henry’s divorce from Anne was obtained from Cromwell whilst he was imprisoned in the tower. After that, he had no further use and he was executed on the 28th July.
In the Act of Attainder confiscating Cromwell’s property, it mentions how he protected those who were accused of treason (linking to the conservative faction and their attacks against him). It also mentions a speech he made in March 1539 supporting the English Lutheran Robert Barnes (indicating that religion had a big part to play).
Henry married 19-year-old Catherine Howard on the same day (28th July 1540) as Cromwell was executed, symbolising the importance of both the conservative faction, who had used Catherine to manipulate Henry and Cromwell’s failure to facilitate the marriage himself.
8.1 Faction:
Catherine Howard = In 1540, Henry was unhappily wed to Anne of Cleves. Conservative Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk looked to increase conservative influence at court.
Catherine Howard = Howard, who had used the same technique with Anne Boleyn (his niece) and introduced another niece, Catherine Howard to Henry.
Catherine Howard = Once Cromwell annulled the Cleves marriage and had been executed, Henry wed Catherine, giving the conservative faction great influence, and leaving the Reformists with no leader.
Catherine Howard = Catherine had an affair with Henry’s favourite Thomas Culpepper. In October 1541 the Reformist faction found out and Cranmer and Seymour gave Henry evidence.
Catherine Howard = Catherine, Culpepper, Dereham (who Catherine had had an affair with prior to her marriage) and Lady Rochford (who facilitated the affair) were executed, while many conservatives ended up in prison. Though their leaders, Gardiner and Howard remained untouched.
Cranmer Plot = In 1543, several conservative clergymen accused two reformers of heresy. At the last-minute Stephen Gardiner’s nephew, Germain Gardiner added an attack on Cranmer to the accusations.
Cranmer Plot = The articles were delivered read to the Council on 22 April 1543. Henry probably saw them that day, Cranmer was not informed and his commissioners dealt with the two reformers accused, acquitting them.
Cranmer Plot = Henry took no further action until September when he revealed the conspiracy to Cranmer himself. Henry stated Cranmer was to carry out a new investigation into the full charges, including those against Cranmer and gave a ring to Cranmer to show his support. Surprise raids were carried out, evidence gathered, and ringleaders identified.
Cranmer Plot = When the Privy Council then came to arrest Cranmer for this involvement with the reformers, Cranmer however revealed the ring Henry had given him. The Council had to back down because of this symbol of the king’s trust. The plot ended with two second-rank leaders of the conservatives imprisoned and Germain Gardiner executed.
Catherine Parr = Parr was a reformist with Lutheran views that were potentially too extreme to be legal. The conservative faction presented evidence to Henry that she was a heretic and he allowed them to confront her.
Catherine Parr = Before the conservatives could act against Parr, she visited Henry herself and plead with him, promising to believe and follow whatever he wanted.
Catherine Parr = The King was satisfied and when the conservatives came to arrest Parr, Henry abused them for trying to commit a treasonous act.
Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey = Duke of Norfolk (Thomas Howard) and his son the Earl of Surrey (Edward Howard) were old nobility, and related to Edward III (giving them a claim to the throne). They believed this meant that they should advise the King.
Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey = In 1546, Surrey, a respected military leader, lost 205 men in a skirmish with French forces at St Etienne. He was blamed and fell from favour with Henry.
Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey = Later in 1546, it was claimed that Surrey had fitted a window containing the Plantagenet coat of arms and had discussed his families Plantagenet blood. This could have been a risk to the Tudor dynasty.
Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey = On 2nd December Seymour showed evidence to the Privy Council that Surrey had committed treason. Surrey was arrested and taken to the Tower and executed on 19th January 1547. Norfolk was also arrested, but Henry died before he could be executed.
The Will = By 1546 it was clear that the King’s declining health meant a minor would succeed him.
The Will = The will proposed a regency council, consisting of Conservatives and Reformists. Members of the council were to have equal powers, and were to govern the country until Edward reached 18 years of age.
The Will = In order to secure the loyalty and co-operation of the Council its members were to be rewarded with new titles, and lands taken from the monasteries and the Howard family.
The Will = It seems probable that William Paget drew up the first (uncontroversial) part of the will part of this with the king’s knowledge in December 1546 and arranged for it to be signed, however in between the clauses and the signature, plenty of space had been left to write in further amendments.
The Will = The details of the Regency Council were then added when the king was sufficiently near to death not to be able to do anything to alter them. Seymour was able to utilise a loop-hole which gave him full control of the council and effectively gave him full monarchical power. He also ensured that the council was loaded with 15 of his closest allies. Anthony Denny, who held the Dry Stamp (a stamp of the King’s signature) was bought in on the plan to enable them to make all necessary changes. It is likely that the king’s death was kept secret for three days while the reformists put these plans into action. Although this version of events will never be able to be proved beyond doubt, it does ring truest of all the scenarios so far offered by researchers.
8.2 Foreign Policy - General:
There had been concerns of a Catholic crusade against England throughout the 1530s and in December 1538, the Pope sent Reginald Pole to persuade Francis and Charles to lead it. This only failed because both feared that the elimination of Henry might benefit the other.
When France and Spain recalled their London ambassadors at the start of 1539, a Catholic invasion was feared.
The most thorough survey of coastal defences since Edward I’s reign was undertaken and a national network of fortification was built. The work, including that at Calais, cost £376,477.
Fear of a Catholic crusade was also what drove Henry to marry Anne of Cleves – to form an alliance with the Lutheran princes of Germany (League of Schmalkalden).
But continuing war between the Habsburgs (HRE) and Valois (France) made a crusade impossible.
The Auld Alliance (1295), was strengthened by the marriage of James V and Mary of Guise and this encouraged Henry to side with the HRE. He also naturally wanted to oppose France, as he still held ambitions of winning back French lands, or even claiming the French throne.
A fresh war between the HRE and France began in 1541.
Henry spent £2 million on war during the 1540s. This used up the rest of the resources gained from the dissolution of the monasteries, debased the coinage, used forced loans, ensured heavy taxation and even led to Henry borrowing money on the Antwerp money market, setting up some of the economic difficulties of the MTC. Most historians consider it to be a costly failure.
8.3 Foreign Policy – Scotland:
Henry arranged to meet James V at York in 1541, but James failed to attend. Henry took this as a personal insult.
James V had been loyal to France in the 1530s and had married two French princesses. He had also protected rebels who fled North after the Pilgrimage of Grace.
In the aftermath of the Anglo-Imperial alliance of 1542, the Scots conducted a number of border raids.
As a result of one or more of these reasons, Henry sent a huge army, led by the Duke of Norfolk, to attack the Scots. They won a huge victory at Solway Moss in November 1542, capturing many Scottish nobles.
Ten days after the defeat, James V died, leaving a baby, Mary, on the throne.
Henry proposed peace, backed up by the marriage of Edward to Mary. This was agreed by the Treaties of Greenwich in 1543. The Scottish nobles who had been captured at Solway Moss were given bribes in return for their support.
The Scottish parliament rejected the Treaties and refused to hand over Mary.
Throughout 1544 and 1545, the Earl of Hertford (Seymour) lead a series of border raids against Scottish towns, which were often set alight. The plan was to try and force the Scots into agreeing to the Treaties.
Seymour was given too few troops however and he was unable to inflict any serious damage against the Scots. All he did was make them more determined to oppose the English.
The Scots decided that Mary should marry the French Dauphin (prince) instead. This reinforced the Auld Alliance and meant that border raids against the English could continue whenever they were occupied with fighting the French.
8.4 Foreign Policy – France:
The Anglo-Imperial treaty of 1542 also drew England into the Habsburg-Valois conflict on the side of the HRE.
France and the HRE signed the Treaty of Crepy in 1544, ending their conflict and leaving England vulnerable and alone in their war against France.
Henry led an army of 48,000 men to France, which was able to capture the city of Boulogne in 1544.
This was an important symbolic victory for Henry. It was more than either Charles (HRE), or Francis (France), achieved in the same time period and restored some of his honour, after a foreign policy that had essentially achieved nothing since 1520. Henry had also managed this without the help of an ally, which allowed him to boast that England had a military force to be reckoned with.
The capture of Boulogne could also be considered strategically useful in the defence of Calais.
1545 saw an attempted French invasion of the South West of England. 200 French ships were able to sail up the Solent and land a raiding party on the Isle of Wight. The French also sent soldiers to their Scottish allies and England’s security appeared to be under threat.
Treaty of Camp/Ardres (June 1546) = England could keep Boulogne for 7 years. France had to pay all outstanding payments from the French pension.