Bianchi, A 2024, ‘Fascism, Anti-Liberalism and Liberalism in Italy’, Fascism (Leiden), vol. 13, no. 2

Published with license by Koninklijke Brill bv

Published with license by Koninklijke Brill bv | doi:10.1163/22116257-bja10076 © Alvaro Bianchi, 2024 | ISSN: 2211-6249 (print) 2211-6257 (online)
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the cc by 4.0 license.

Fascism, Anti-Liberalism and Liberalism in Italy

  • Author: Alvaro Bianchi

  • Affiliation: Department of Political Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, Brazil

  • Email: abianchi@unicamp.br

  • Received: 14 September 2023

  • Accepted: 10 July 2024

  • Published online: 22 November 2024

Abstract

  • Main Thesis: Anti-liberalism is often highlighted as central to interpretations of fascism. The article discusses the existence of a liberal-fascist current in Italian Fascism, particularly in the early years of the fascist government.

  • Journals Referenced:

    • La Nuova Politica Liberale: A journal that gathered followers of the philosopher Giovanni Gentile.

    • Critica Fascista: An organ of the revisionists led by Giuseppe Bottai.

  • Key Ideas:

    • Anti-individualism, anti-naturalism, and anti-democracy were central to this current, asserting national rights over individual rights.

    • Freedom is the creation of a political society, not a natural state.

    • A strong and orderly state is essential for freedom to exist.

  • Argument: Highlighting this liberal-fascist current supports a more complex understanding of Italian Fascism, revealing ideological clashes and different intellectual currents within the movement.

Key Concepts and Intellectual Background

Historical Views of Fascism

  • Norberto Bobbio's View: The idea of a coherent fascist ideology is disputed; he stated, ‘it never really existed’.

  • Commonplaces in Fascist Studies: It has been a common stance to interpret fascism as ‘indigent in terms of doctrine’ and characterized by ideological confusion and negligence.

Theoretical Definitions

  1. Ernst Nolte: Defined interwar European fascisms as radical nationalist movements with revolutionary aims, asserting they are anti-Marxian, antiliberal, and anticonservative.

  2. Eugen Weber: Social critic who highlighted fascism's ideas as predominantly negative—chiefly anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, and anti-democracy.

  3. Juan L. Linz: Noted fascism as an anti-movement, characterized by opposition to Marxism, communism, proletarianism, liberalism, parliamentarianism, conservativism, and bourgeois elements.

  4. Contemporary Definitions:

    • Sternhell, Sznajder, and Asheri characterize fascism as revolutionary ideology, anti-liberal, anti-materialist, and anti-Marxist.

    • Emilio Gentile refers to fascism as ‘pragmatic’ and ‘anti-ideological’, listing various negative attributes against it, including being anti-liberal.

The Countering View

  • Roger Griffin’s Theory: Opposes the negative definition of fascism and states the ‘generic fascist minimum’ is a mythic core of ‘palingenetic-ultranationalism’, making ultranationalism a coherent form of revolutionary ideology that fundamentally opposes liberal principles.

  • Empirical Evidence: Mussolini’s La dottrina del fascismo booklet published in 1932 proclaimed an “absolute opposition” to liberal doctrines, emphasizing that fascism stands against liberal politics and economics.

The Relationship Between Fascism and Liberalism

The Rise of Liberal-Fascism

  • During its inception phase in the 1920s, Italian fascism saw the emergence of an intellectual discourse termed ‘liberal-fascism’, advocating for the integration of elements from liberalism into the fascist regime.

  • Key Journals:

    • La Nuova Politica Liberale: Promoted liberal-fascist ideas and gathered disciples of Gentile.

    • Critica Fascista: Led by Giuseppe Bottai, hosting discussions on the adaptation of liberal principles within fascism.

  • Distinctions in Ideology:

    • Highlighted the difference between classical liberalism and the newer forms derived from philosophical idealism, which stressed collective rights over individual ones.

    • Notable Figures: Giovanni Gentile and his disciples created a new liberalism characterized by the primacy of the ethical state and the integrity of national rights.

Analysis of Mussolini’s Rhetoric

  1. Critique of Liberalism: - Anticipated the decline of the liberal state, as articulated in his writings and speeches post-1922, signaling a shift toward a constructed state focused on national interests.

  2. Conflict with Liberal Politics: - Engaged with liberal politicians initially, proposing collaboration, but soon articulated a stark opposition, particularly after consolidating power in the early years of fascism.

The Internal Conflict within Fascism

Struggles for a New Order

Predicament Post-Power Acquisition

  1. Theoretical Debates:

    • Revisionists within fascism called for normalization of fascism and engagement with parliamentary politics.

    • Tensions emerged between the radical wing and those seeking a more moderated approach toward liberal principles.

  2. Prominent Voices:

    • Augusto De Marsanich: Addressed the need for Fascism to encompass Italian society rather than remain a militant outfit and asserted democracy in a political sense to aid general governance.

    • Massimo Rocca: Critiqued the party’s inclination toward violence and emphasized a transition towards technocratic governance and legal normalization.

    • Giovanni Amendola: Made appeals to recognize fascist contributions while advocating for liberal restoration, giving a voice to dissenting liberal sentiments.

Ideological Realignment and Party Reform

  • Mussolini's shifting stance on liberalism illustrated his pragmatic approach, noting the need to avoid alienation within the party while establishing a definitive fascist polity.

  • Discussions of constitutional reforms and the necessity of maintaining order within party ranks reflected the discomfort with the party’s radical aspects while hinting at a desire for broader democratic representation.

Conclusion

Reevaluation of Fascism

  • The existence of a liberal-fascist trend complicates the definition of fascism as strictly anti-liberal; rather, it may be viewed as anti-democratic, showcasing selective compatibility with liberal ideas within a broader nationalist ideology.

  • The analysis suggests Italian fascism held elements of liberal thought shaped by Hegelian ideas, differentiating it from Anglo-Saxon liberal traditions while resting on substantial philosophical foundations that included notions of rights as national rather than individual.

  • The interplay and conflicting currents within fascism allow contemporary scholarship to better explore the complexities of modern far-right politics and the historical continuity from earlier European movements.