Catholic Reformation and the End of the Sixteenth Century

The Catholic Reformation

• The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was a response to the Protestant Reformation.
• Protestantism was an aggressive movement that caught the papacy and Catholic monarchs off guard.
• Initially, the papacy, led by Pope Leo X, didn't take Martin Luther's protests seriously, viewing him as a "drunken German monk."
• Europe was dealing with conflicts between Francis I of France and Charles V (King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor), as well as the threat from Suleiman the Magnificent and the Ottoman Turks.

Slowdown of Protestant Movement and Catholic Response

• By the mid-1500s, the Protestant movement slowed, with some regions like Poland and Lithuania returning to Roman Catholicism.
• The Catholic Church revitalized itself, leading to the Counter-Reformation.
• Scholarly debate exists over whether to call it the "Catholic Reformation" or "Counter-Reformation."
  • "Catholic Reformation" emphasizes that reform efforts were underway before Luther.
  • Aspirations for reform weren't solely a reaction to Protestantism.

Early Reform Efforts

• Reforms within the Catholic Church had already begun with the decline of the Middle Ages and the rise of a secular political age.
• Religious orders like the Benedictines, Cistercians, and Franciscans underwent reforms in the 14th and 15th centuries.
• The Church aimed to improve gospel preaching and call laypeople back to Catholic morality.
• The Fifth Lateran Council in 1512 attempted reforms for secular priests.
• Competing factions emerged within the Catholic Church regarding attitudes toward Protestants.

Competing Factions within the Catholic Church

• Spirituali:
  • Led by Cardinal Gasparo Contarini, they sought reconciliation with Protestants.
  • These "Catholic progressives" recognized the need for church reform.
  • Some had an affinity for Luther's understanding of justification.
• Zelanti:
  • Led by Pope Paul IV (Carafa), they advocated for retrenchment into traditional doctrines.
  • They favored suppressing Protestantism, by force if necessary.
• By 1542, the Zelanti triumphed, launching an aggressive counterattack against Protestants.
  • This involved prohibiting heretical books.
  • Reinstating the Inquisition.
  • Forming new monastic orders like the Jesuits.
  • Convening a general church council.

Hardening of Catholic Stance

• After 1550, the split between Catholicism and Protestantism became permanent.
• The Church became more hardline and intolerant.
• Reforms focused on internal discipline and making membership appealing to Catholics.
• Factors preserving the Church's power and influence:
  • Habit, ritual, organization, discipline, hierarchy, and wealth.
• Some princes realized Protestantism led to political problems.
• Catholic rituals were comforting to many.
• The Church continued funding building projects and lavish artwork to appeal to laypeople.

Key Figures and Events

• Pope Julius II: Initiated slow institutional reform at the Lateran Council of 1512.
• Pope Adrian VI: Stated that God permits the persecution of Lutheranism.
• Pope Clement VII: Involved in the conflict between France and the Holy Roman Emperor, leading to the Sack of Rome.
• Pope Paul III:
  • Initially seen as unlikely to undertake serious reform.
  • Appointed reform-minded cardinals.
  • Established the Inquisition in the Papal States.
  • Convened a council.
  • Commissioned a report in 1536 evaluating the necessity of reform.

The 1536 Report and Doctrinal Stand

• The 1536 report concluded that numerous abuses existed within the Church, such as:
  • Lack of education among clergy.
  • Bishops earning incomes from parishes they never visited.
• However, the report firmly upheld Church doctrine.
• Essential beliefs and practices were deemed correct.
• Luther, Calvin, and other reformers were judged entirely wrong.

The Roman Inquisition

• Under Pope Paul III, the Inquisition became a permanent feature of the Church.
• Inspired by the Spanish Inquisition's effectiveness.
• Cardinal Gian Pietro Carafa (later Pope Paul IV) pushed for its introduction in Italy to suppress Protestantism.
• Carafa, as General Inquisitor, set up interrogation rooms in his own home.
• As Pope Paul IV (from 1555), the Roman Inquisition intensified, adopting a "witch-hunting" mentality.

The Council of Trent (1545-1563)

• The Council of Trent was the official expression of the Catholic Reformation.

• Despite calls from Luther and other reformers, the papacy hesitated to convene a council for fear of reviving the conciliar movement.

• Convened in 1545 after difficult negotiations with the Holy Roman Emperor.

• The council had a twofold agenda:

  • Moral reform.
  • Expunction of Protestant heresy.

• Empty churches and criticisms of clergy behavior prompted this reformation.

• Key Points about the Council of Trent:

  • Went through five papal reigns.
  • Held 25 sessions over 18 years.
  • Charles V invited a Lutheran delegation to the second session, but no dialogue occurred.
  • The council aimed to combat Protestantism.
  • It was a turning point in Catholic history, with dogma and disciplinary reforms passed.
  • Three sessions: the last one (1561-1563) was the most important for doctrinal rulings.
  • Italian bishops heavily influenced the proceedings.

Outcomes of the Council of Trent

• Pope Paul IV oversaw the creation of the Index of Forbidden Books, which formed the basis of royal censorship in Catholic countries for two centuries.
• The Bible was to remain in Latin, not translated into vernacular languages.
• Pope Pius IV concluded the council, asserting papal authority.
• The papacy triumphed over anti-papal tendencies.
• Pope Pius IV is connected with the profession of faith required of everyone holding an ecclesiastical office.
• Trent affirmed core Catholic doctrines.

Results and Consequences of the Council of Trent

• Expansion of the Roman Catechism.

• Publication of the Vulgate (Latin Bible).

• Reforms to the Breviary (Liturgy of the Hours) and the Missal (book used in Catholic Mass).

• Defined Catholic dogma, including:

  • Faith is based on the Bible and Church tradition, including writings of Church Fathers.
  • Human salvation relies on God's grace.
  • Bread and wine in Eucharist are real and substantial (transubstantiation).
  • The canon of scriptures is determined.
  • Indulgences are maintained, but their abuses, curtailing of simony (purchase of church offices).
  • Rules concerning ecclesiastic discipline were established, and the Roman Inquisition is made permanent.
  • Purgatory is asserted, and prayers for the deceased and saints worship are affirmed.
  • Monasticism and clerical celibacy are reaffirmed.

Index of Forbidden Books

• The Council of Trent published an index of forbidden books, including:
  • 583 heretical texts.
  • Translations of the Bible.
  • Works by Erasmus, Calvin, and Luther.
• Enforced by Pope Paul IV, it formed the basis of censorship in Catholic countries for two centuries.
• The Bible was not to be translated into vernacular languages.

Changes in Church Practices and Art

• New churches were built with space for thousands, with acoustics redesigned.
• Vernacular sermons were introduced.
• Art in churches should be direct, avoid nudity, and focus on the Madonna, saints, and the Crucifixion.
• These changes spurred the Baroque art movement, which emphasized the glory and power of the Catholic Church.
• The reforms inadvertently sparked the Scientific Revolution, challenging the Church's authority and worldview as efforts to reform the Julian calendar may have led to confrontation with Galileo.

Baroque Art Examples

• Statue of Saint Teresa, overwhelmed by divine presence.
• Statue of Ignatius of Loyola at the Church of the Gesu in Rome.
• Emphasis on the Passion of Christ, focusing on the crucifixion.
• Portrayals of the Madonna.

Tridentine Reforms

• Charles Borromeo, nephew of Pope Pius V, reformed the clergy, founded seminaries, and established hospitals and schools.
• These reforms redefined Catholicism as a working system, known as Tridentine.
• The papal bureaucracy was reorganized.
• Seminaries were established for priests in every diocese.
• Bishops were required to visit parishes regularly.
• The Council of Trent did not address papal reform directly.
• No church council was called for 300 years after Trent, demonstrating its significance.
• The Catholic Church became more distinctly Roman Catholic.

Robert Bellarmine

• Robert Bellarmine, a prominent Catholic theologian, systematized Catholic polemics against Protestantism.
• He opposed Pelagianism, insisting, like Thomas Aquinas, that human efforts are futile without God's grace.
• He was involved in the trial of Galileo, condemning his heliocentric views.

New Monastic Orders

• During the 16th century, new monastic orders emerged to facilitate reform.
• Some orders focused on renewing monastic ideals:
  • The Discalced Carmelites, embodied by Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, sought a strict observance of ancient vows.
  • Teresa of Ávila's visions are recorded in her book, integrating Spanish Renaissance literature and Christian mysticism.
  • Another order reviving ancient ideals was founded by Matteo da Bascio.
• The Capuchins aimed for stricter observance of Franciscan ideals, emphasizing poverty and prayer.

The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

• The Jesuits had the greatest impact during the Reformation period.
• Founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1540, the Jesuits:
  • Served as "shock troops" of the Counter-Reformation.
  • Were dedicated, well-educated, and disciplined.
  • Focused on reviving Catholicism.
  • Were tireless preachers, missionaries, and defenders of Catholic doctrine.
  • Helped reconvert Southern Germany and Poland.
  • Undertook missionary work in North and South America and other parts of the world.
• Loyola wrote "Spiritual Exercises," encouraging veneration of the Church.
• The Jesuits were the faithful soldiers to the Pope whose purpose is to fight Protestantism and heresy, forming this militant arm of soldier scholars that are available to the pope.
• The society of Jesus was founded as directly from Rome.

Jesuit Activities and Impact

• The term Jesuit was initially derogatory.
• In 1542, the Jesuits oversaw both the Spanish and the Italian Roman Inquisitions.
• Some Jesuits became confessors to Catholic rulers.
• Their overseas missions extended to China, Japan, North and South America, documented through their letters.
• The Jesuit motto, "For the greater glory of God," justified their actions even if it allowed them to participate in the inquisitions that allowed them then, particularly in North And South America, participate in the dis dispossession of land and cultures, and reflects the belief that the ends justify the means.
• The Jesuits concentrated on:
  • Establishing schools and universities.
  • Missionary work abroad.
  • Stopping the spread of Protestantism.

The Galileo Affair

• Nicholas Copernicus proposed a heliocentric system in 1543.
• Galileo supported Copernicus' thesis with his observations from a telescope.
• Cardinal Bellarmine warned Galileo he was on dangerous ground.
• The Inquisition declared heliocentrism heretical.
• Galileo's books were banned.
• In 1633, Galileo was tried for heresy, forced to renounce his beliefs, and sentenced to house arrest.
• In 1758, the Catholic Church dropped the prohibition of books advocating heliocentrism.
• Later, Pope John Paul II called for a deeper study of the Galileo case.

Conclusion: Intolerance and Division

• By the 1560s, battle lines were firmly set between Catholicism and Protestantism.
• Both sides showed little religious tolerance.
• Wars of propaganda and evangelism turned into wars of muskets and pikes.
• Religion was deeply connected to the faith of the leader.
• Princes often held authority in church lands.
• Priests served as important royal officials.
• Specific doctrines were defined by competing confessions (Augsburg Confession, Council of Trent).

Reformation and French Wars of Religion

• A weak monarchy in France was kept in check by powerful royalty.
• Henry II died in a jousting accident and was succeeded by Francis II, who was already king of Scotland through his wife, Mary, Queen of Scots.
• The House of Guise claimed descent from Charlemagne and sought the French throne.
• The House of Guise identified as champions of the Catholic cause, while the House of Bourbon (princes of the blood) were Protestant Huguenots.