Chapter 24: An Age of Modernity, Anxiety, and Imperialism, 1894-1914

24-4 International Rivalry and the Coming of War (pp. 751-753)

Comprehension Questions

  1. Congress of Berlin (1878)

    • Purpose: Called to address the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War and to revise the Treaty of San Stefano.
    • Result:
      • Dismantled the Treaty of San Stefano, reducing the size of Bulgaria and returning territories to Ottoman control.
      • Recognized the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania.
      • Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian protection without annexation.

  2. Differences in Foreign Policy between Kaiser William II and Bismarck

    • Bismarck's Policy: Focused on stability and balance of power, keeping peace through alliances, like the Three Emperors’ League and the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia.
    • Kaiser William II's Policy: Adopted an aggressive foreign policy aimed at enhancing Germany’s power, initiating the dismissal of treaties like the Reinsurance Treaty, leading to a Franco-Russian alliance.
    • Assessment: Discussion on whose approach was more effective in maintaining peace in Europe before WWI, with contextual considerations of successes and failures.

  3. Austria’s Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina

    • Necessity of Annexation:
      • Austria viewed a large Serbian state as a threat to its empire, as it had a significant Slavic population.
      • The annexation was seen as imperative to maintaining the integrity and unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
    • Response from Serbia:
      • Serbia was angered due to aspirations of creating a Slavic kingdom incorporating Bosnia-Herzegovina.

  4. Major Alliances by 1913

    • Formed Alliances:
      • The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy) and the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia).
    • Issues:
      • Competition over interests in the Balkans contributed to tensions, especially regarding Russian and Austrian ambitions.

Peace in Europe (Before 1914)

  • For almost fifty years, Europe had experienced relative peace among great powers, with wars occurring outside the continent.
  • The absence of general war was largely due to Bismarck's influence until 1890.

24-4a The Bismarckian System

  • European Presence in Asia:

    • The Dutch, Spanish, French, and Portuguese had limited territories in Asia, while Britain and Russia had expanded significantly.
    • Bismarck recognized that Germany's unification upset the balance of power from the Congress of Vienna in 1815.

  • Formation of Alliances:

    • Bismarck sought to isolate France by forming alliances with Austria-Hungary and Russia through the Three Emperors’ League, which struggled due to Russian-Austrian tensions in the Balkans.

  • Decline of Ottoman Power:

    • Deterioration of Ottoman control in the Balkans led to uprisings among subject peoples, notably Serbia and Montenegro, leading to increased intervention by European powers.

  • Russo-Turkish War:

    • Following Serbian and Montenegrin declarations of war against the Ottomans, Russia intervened and achieved victory, resulting in the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878.
    • Congress of Berlin Outcome:
      • Bismarck facilitated this congress, leading to significant reductions in Russian gains and the establishment of Austria-Hungary's authority in the Balkans.

24-4b New Directions and New Crises

  • Shift in Foreign Policy under Kaiser William II:

    • Reversed Bismarck's treaties, which brought the Franco-Russian alliance into existence, replacing the earlier balance established by Bismarck.
    • Poised Germany for conflict by neglecting diplomatic alliances, pushing Europe into opposing camps: the Triple Alliance vs. the Triple Entente.

  • Balkan Crises (1908-1913):

    • Bosnian Crisis (1908-1909): Austria’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina inflamed Serbian nationalism and outrage, resulting in tensions with Russia, who supported Serbia.
    • Consequences:
      • Prompted Russian military backing for Serbia, leading to confrontations with Austria where William II demanded Russian recognition of Austria's annexation.

  • First Balkan War (1912):

    • Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece successfully fought against the Ottoman Empire, leading to territorial gains but tensions over the division of land.

  • Second Balkan War (1913):

    • Conflict over Macedonia's territories emerged due to differences in interests among victorious allies, with Serbia’s ambitions thwarted by opposition from Austria.
    • Consequential Impact:
      • Power dynamics in the Balkans worsened, leaving Serbia embittered and increasing hostilities among great powers.

  • Outcomes:

    • By 1914, the European powers were highly suspicious of one another, with tensions mounting dangerously close to war. An observation from an American suggested a volatile atmosphere ready to explode with the slightest provocation.
    • Hints of the coming catastrophe for Europe, with both the German ambassador and observers noting the precariousness of peace.

Conclusion

  • The Overall Implication: The alliances and conflicts in the Balkans contributed to the rapid escalation toward World War I, indicating the fragility of peace amidst complex national interests and historical grievances.