HIST136: Hungarian Revolution
Introduction
The lecture series will cover revolutions in Eastern Europe after World War II against Soviet dominance.
The 1956 Hungarian Revolution will be examined as a failed revolution against the Soviet Union.
A direct link exists between the events of 1956 and the revolutions of 1989, where the limits of Soviet tolerance were tested.
Subsequent lectures will focus on 1989 revolutions and a case study of the East German revolution.
Causes of the 1956 Revolution
The lecture will delve into the causes of the Hungarian Revolution.
It will analyze why Soviet forces intervened in Hungary but not in Poland, despite similar events.
The role of women in the Hungarian Revolution will also be explored, addressing the lack of scholarship on the topic and examining alternative historical sources.
Additionally, it will discuss the long-term results and significance of the revolution and its suppression.
Post-WWII Hungary (1945)
Following the armistice on January 20, 1945, a provisional government was formed in Hungary.
This government consisted of multiple political parties united in their resistance to Nazism, granting them political legitimacy for national rehabilitation and restoration.
Elections were held in late 1945 with 5 million voters and a broad franchise for those over 20 years old, resulting in a legitimate coalition of political parties.
Despite the election results, the Soviet Union, viewing Hungary as within its sphere of influence, intervened to ensure the Hungarian Communist Party had a disproportionately large role in the government.
The Soviets insisted on communist control of the interior ministry, which oversaw the police and secret police, and the appointment of a communist deputy prime minister.
The election results, with the Smallholders Party gaining 57% of the vote compared to the Communist Party's 17%, did not reflect this arrangement.
Soviet Intervention and Communist Influence
The Soviet Union exerted pressure on Hungary, enabling the Hungarian Communist Party to employ "salami tactics."
These tactics involved intimidation, blackmail, and threats to undermine the Smallholders Party and democracy.
The Communist Party hampered reforms and used the security police (AVH) against political enemies.
By 1947, despite the 1945 election results, the Hungarian Communist Party gained significant power.
They narrowed the electoral franchise, removed people from the electoral roll, and committed electoral fraud to ensure victory.
Multi-party democracy ended with the merger of the Communist and Social Democratic parties in 1948, followed by the elimination of all other political parties by 1949, leading to a one-party state.
Stalinization of Hungary
The Hungarian Communist Party initiated a radical transformation of Hungary, characterized by the Stalinization of the economy, culture, and daily life.
Policies such as collectivization and nationalization were implemented starting in late 1948.
Mátyás Rákosi, the leader of the Hungarian Communist Party and Prime Minister, aimed to be Stalin's most devoted follower.
His leadership resulted in one of the most repressive regimes in Eastern Europe, marked by a personality cult, political repression, terror, and purges.
Show trials, with predetermined outcomes, were conducted, leading to executions of those accused of treason and collaboration with foreign powers.
One such trial targeted László Rajk, who was later rehabilitated in October 1956, triggering the revolution.
Political and Economic Repression
Ordinary citizens were accused of spying and sabotage, leading to extensive files on approximately 1,300,000 Hungarians by the early 1950s.
Intellectuals and members of the middle class were deported to concentration camps or forced into slave labor.
The Stalinization of Hungary resulted in significant economic oppression.
The nationalization of industry and collectivization of agriculture mirrored the Soviet economic model.
Rapid changes led to economic stagnation and a decline in the standard of living, which was already dire after World War II.
Farmers left their land due to new levies and unattainable crop targets.
Hungary faced US in war reparations, leading to hyperinflation and devaluation of money.
Ordinary Hungarians experienced reduced incomes, shortages of essential goods (food rationing for bread, sugar, flour, and meat), and deteriorating working conditions in nationalized factories.
Cultural Changes and Education
Radical changes occurred in culture, especially education, with a focus on Stalinization.
Efforts were made to replace the educated elite with a "toiling intelligentsia," which aimed to provide education to broader segments of society.
The curriculum emphasized Russian language and communist political instruction.
Secondary school enrollment doubled, and university enrollment tripled, but staffing did not keep pace, resulting in lower educational quality.
Adult education was emphasized, and the education system was secularized.
The Church faced harassment despite an agreement with the state, including the prosecution of church leaders and surveillance of the clergy.
The Academy of Sciences underwent purges, and scientists faced pressure to conform to Marxist-Leninist doctrine.
The Thaw After Stalin's Death (1953)
Following Stalin's death in early 1953, a collective leadership emerged in the Kremlin, with figures like Beria, Malenkov, Bulganin, and Khrushchev vying for power.
Khrushchev recognized the volatile situation in Eastern Europe caused by rapid Stalinization.
He initiated a process of destalinization known as "the thaw," signaling a willingness to tolerate some reform and liberalization.
This included moderate political liberalization and slower industrialization to improve living standards, reduce political repression, and improve relations with the West.
In most Eastern Bloc countries, communist parties developed reform wings pushing for "communism with a human face."
However, this process undermined hardline leaders and unleashed pent-up popular discontent, leading to destalinization running out of control, particularly in Hungary and Poland.
Crackdowns followed, demonstrating the limits of Soviet tolerance for change.
Poland vs. Hungary
In Poland, reforms were deemed acceptable as they preserved communist rule and maintained the Warsaw Pact alliance, allowing some autonomy.
Conversely, in Hungary, attempts at change went too far, with signals of leaving the Warsaw Pact and transforming into a Western-style democracy, which was intolerable to the Soviet Union.
Impact of the Thaw on Hungary
Khrushchev's signaling of reform led to the undermining of hardline leaders, including Mátyás Rákosi in Hungary.
Rákosi was forced to step down as Prime Minister in 1953, and Imre Nagy, a figure from the reform wing, replaced him.
Rákosi remained as General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party, creating a difficult dynamic for Nagy's reforms.
Nagy's "New Course" aimed to reform economic policies, shifting from heavy industry to consumer goods, slowing collectivization, raising living standards, slowing industrialization, and decentralizing the economy.
He also reduced political repression and terror, leading to a decline in police activity.
However, by April 1955, Rákosi and his supporters undermined Nagy's leadership, leading to his sacking as Prime Minister and expulsion from the government and, eventually, from the Communist Party.
Khrushchev's Secret Speech and its Repercussions
In February 1956, Khrushchev delivered the "Secret Speech" denouncing Stalin and calling for liberalization.
He portrayed Stalin as a mass murderer responsible for repression and the gulag, blaming the cult of personality.
This speech circulated among communist parties in Eastern Europe, opening a Pandora's Box of reform.
Rákosi was further undermined, and despite attempts to make concessions, he was forced to resign in July 1956.
Ernő Gerő, an unreconstructed Stalinist, was appointed as a compromise Prime Minister, which further destabilized the situation.
The state apparatus was paralyzed, and emergency workers councils emerged to represent workers' interests.
Students, writers, and journalists became more politically active, publicly criticizing the government and seeking different roads to socialism or multi-party democracy and national independence.
Rise of Discontent
By October 1956, the rehabilitation and reburial of László Rajk, a victim of Stalinist show trials, provided a platform for calls for change.
The reburial on October 6 was attended by 300,000 people and symbolized the victims of the party's terror.
Writers and party officials signaled the promise of change and an end to lawlessness.
Meanwhile, similar discontent emerged in Poland, with widespread protests and demonstrations over pay issues.
Large-scale riots occurred in June 1956 in Poznań, transitioning from pay demands to anti-communist sentiments, alarming the government.
Polish security forces killed 53 demonstrators, further enraging protesters, leading to a potential collapse of the government.
Compromise in Poland
Instead of using force or seeking Soviet assistance, the Polish government negotiated with demonstrators and brought back former party leader Władysław Gomułka, who had been under house arrest since 1949.
Khrushchev attempted to prevent this by ordering Soviet troops to Warsaw, but he had to withdraw them due to potential resistance from Polish forces.
In Poland, Gomułka brought the anti-communist sentiment under control and kept Poland within the Warsaw Pact.
In return, Poland received a degree of pride and independence, including the removal of a Soviet Red Army marshal and control over Soviet troops on their territory.
Gomułka was allowed a free hand domestically, reversing collectivization, raising wages, and reintroducing religious education.
Factors Leading to Revolution
Historians have debated why the Soviet Union intervened in Hungary but not in Poland.
Interpretations include the personalities of the leading politicians in each country and the fact that the Hungarians alarmed the Soviet Union by seeking neutrality and a multi-party system.
Events of the Hungarian Revolution
Following the reburial of Rajk in October, a large-scale demonstration occurred on October 23, starting with 20,000 people, mainly students, rallying in solidarity with Poland.
They demanded freedom and democracy despite threats from the interior minister.
The marches were addressed by Imre Nagy, and manifestos were read, demanding independence from foreign powers, democratic socialism, land reform, public ownership, and Hungary joining the United Nations.
The crowd grew to around 200,000 people outside the Parliament building, calling for reform.
Prime Minister Gerő condemned the protesters, angering the crowd, who began knocking down symbols of communism and the Soviet Union, including the statue of Stalin.
Escalation of Violence
After the Prime Minister's speech, a large crowd descended on Radio Budapest and the party building.
The party called for the police and the people's army to fire on the demonstrators, but they refused.
Security police guarding the Radio Budapest building opened fire on the crowd, using live ammunition and tear gas, resulting in numerous deaths, including children.
The crowd attacked police cars and other symbols of the regime.
Soldiers joined the crowd, and similar actions against unarmed demonstrators spread across the nation.
Soviet Intervention and Civil War
Gerő requested assistance from the Soviet Union, which arrived the next day in the form of Soviet tanks on October 24.
Many of the tanks were destroyed by Molotov cocktails thrown by students and young workers.
Nagy was brought back as Prime Minister to try and deal with the situation.
He called for an end to the violence and promised reforms, but the people continued to engage in sporadic fighting, particularly against the security police.
By October 25, another crowd outside parliament was shot at, and the government collapsed.
Revolutionary councils emerged nationwide to assume authority.
Attempts at Negotiation and Ceasefire
Nagy remained involved in these events and negotiated with the Soviets for a ceasefire on October 28.
Fighting virtually ceased between October 28 and November 4.
Nagy created a new government, including non-communists, aiming for a neutral multi-party social democracy.
Political prisoners were released, and previously banned political parties began to reappear.
However, violence continued, particularly directed at the security police, leading to some lynchings.
End of Hungarian Revolution
Khrushchev decided to take a hard line on October 31.
On November 1, János Kádár, leader of the Hungarian party, presented himself at the Soviet embassy and was taken to Moscow to return as the new leader.
Nagy sided with the rebels and declared Hungary's neutrality, threatening to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact.
On November 4, a counter-revolution began as the Soviets sent in more tanks, divisions, and tens of thousands of infantry.
As the Soviet tanks crossed the border, Nagy made a short speech on the radio, stating that Hungary was being invaded and should fight.
Nagy fled for safety to the Yugoslav embassy.
Hungarian soldiers, civilians, women, and students fought back against the Soviets, but were defeated.
Approximately 2,500 Hungarian revolutionaries died in Budapest, and around 20,000 were wounded.
Role of Women in Hungarian Revolution
Historian Maria Palasic analyzed 4,000 photographs from the revolution and identified women in various roles.
Young women, like 15-year-old Erika Szeles, engaged in armed combat.
Women played auxiliary roles as nurses, providing food, and tending to the wounded.
Approximately 10% of those involved were women.
Women were prosecuted after the revolution for actions like providing first aid or participating in clashes.
Younger women and teenagers were more involved in armed clashes.
About 4% of those prosecuted and executed were women, often for political statements against communist figures.
Aftermath of the Suppression
Brutal vengeance was exacted against ringleaders and political figures, including Nagy and his colleagues.
They were promised safe passage to Austria, but were arrested, put on trial, and executed.
Ordinary Hungarians faced prosecutions, and a refugee crisis emerged, with around 200,000 people fleeing to Austria.
A new government was set up under János Kádár, who had been taken to Moscow and returned with the counter-revolution.
Ironically, Hungary became one of the least repressive communist states.
Legacy of the Revolution
The Hungarian Revolution was initially labeled a counter-revolution against communism and was a taboo subject.
In the 1980s, the communist regime began a process of reform and reassessment of the past, including the events of 1956.
In January 1989, Imre Pozsgay stated in a radio interview that the revolution was a people's uprising against an oligarchic and nation-humiliating rule.
On June 16, 1989, Nagy was reburied, rehabilitated, and attended by a crowd of