7.11+Interwar+Foreign+Policy

Interwar Foreign Policy

Overview of American Attitudes (1920s-1930s)

  • Disillusionment from WWI and Europe's issues led to isolationism.

  • Congress refused League of Nations membership, marking a retreat to isolationism.

  • Shift to unilateralism: military interventions, overseas investments, and treaties were common.

  • Efforts to avoid another world war ultimately failed.

Post-World War I Agreements

Republican Presidents and Peace Initiatives

  • Focus on reducing defense expenditures and promoting peace through disarmament treaties.

Washington Conference (1921)

  • Initiated by Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes to discuss naval disarmament.

  • Nations involved: Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal.

Key Treaties from the Washington Conference:

  • Five-Power Treaty: Agreed upon naval strength ratios for largest battleships:

    • U.S.: 5

    • Great Britain: 5

    • Japan: 3

    • France: 1.67

    • Italy: 1.67

  • Four-Power Treaty: U.S., France, Great Britain, and Japan agreed to respect each other's Pacific territories.

  • Nine-Power Treaty: All nine nations pledged to uphold the Open Door policy for China.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

  • Peace movement led by women aimed to outlaw wars.

  • U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Minister Aristide Briand arranged this treaty.

  • Almost all nations signed it, renouncing war as a means to national ends but it lacked enforcement measures.

Business and Diplomacy in the 1920s

Pro-Business Foreign Policy

  • Republican presidents promoted economic interests to strengthen foreign diplomacy.

Latin America Relations

  • Oil and mineral ownership by Mexican government raised concerns among U.S. investors.

  • Ambassador Dwight Morrow negotiated to protect U.S. interests.

Military Presence in Latin America

  • U.S. troops maintained in Nicaragua and Haiti.

  • Withdrawals from the Dominican Republic in 1924 while economic presence expanded.

  • Investments in Latin America doubled (1919-1929).

Middle East Oil Interests

  • U.S. obtained oil-drilling rights against British dominance in the region.

Economic Policies

  • Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922): Increased duties on foreign goods, inadvertently slowed European recovery and intensified the Great Depression.

War Debts and Reparations Issues

America's Shift from Debtor to Creditor

  • Pre-WWI a debtor; post-WWI a creditor nation, loaning over $10 billion.

  • U.S. insisted on full debt repayment from Britain and France post-war.

  • European nations struggled to repay debts due to high tariffs and economic strains.

Dawes Plan (1924)

  • Extracted a payment structure involving U.S. loans to Germany to support reparations payments to Allies.

  • Cycle of influence waned after the 1929 stock market crash.

  • Only Finland completely repaid war debts, creating resentment toward America.

Herbert Hoover's Foreign Policy

  • Opposed firm commitments to foreign security during the rising isolationist sentiment.

Relations with Latin America

  • Hoover's goodwill tour in 1929 emphasized friendly relations.

  • U.S. military interventionism was reduced in formulating special treaties to withdraw troops from Nicaragua and Haiti.

Japanese Aggression in the 1930s

Manchuria Crisis (1931)

  • Japan invaded Manchuria, disregarding the Open Door Policy.

  • Resulting weak League of Nations response demonstrated its ineffectiveness.

Stimson Doctrine (1932)

  • U.S. declaration to not recognize regimes established by force, specifically regarding Manchukuo.

The Rise of Fascism and Militarism

Economic and Political Consequences of the Depression

  • Dictatorships gained power in Japan, Italy, and Germany, forming Axis alliances by 1940.

Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany

  • Mussolini's Fascist Party and Hitler’s Nazi Party capitalized on post-war discontent and economic hardship.

Japanese Militarism

  • Japan expanded its influence through invasions to secure resources, notably the full-scale invasion of China (1937).

American Isolationism

Public Sentiment

  • Following WWI, isolationism became popular, intensified by events like the Japanese invasion of Manchuria.

Neutrality Acts

  • A series of acts aimed at maintaining American neutrality involved:

    • The Neutrality Act of 1935: Arms shipment bans.

    • The Neutrality Act of 1936: Loans and credit restrictions.

    • The Neutrality Act of 1937: Shipment restrictions to Spain.

America First Committee (1940)

  • Formed to mobilize against U.S. involvement in WWII, countering Roosevelt's pro-British policies.

Prelude to War

Rising Aggressions by Axis Powers

  • Notable events included Ethiopia (1935), Rhineland (1936), Chinese invasion (1937), and Sudetenland occupation (1938).

Quarantine Speech

  • Roosevelt's proposal for cooperative actions against aggressors faced public pushback, illustrating resistance to intervention.

Preparedness and Military Buildup

  • With rising global tensions, Roosevelt called for increased military spending, managing to convince Congress amid isolationist resistance.

Outbreak of WWII

  • Following Hitler's 1939 occupation of Czechoslovakia, Britain and France guaranteed support for Poland which led to the official outbreak of the war

  • Germany's blitzkrieg strategy was efficient in initial victories, changing the landscape of European warfare.

Shift in U.S. Foreign Policy

Roosevelt's Increasing Support to Allies

  • Cash-and-Carry: Allowed belligerents to purchase arms, favoring Britain while maintaining a neutral facade.

  • Selective Service Act (1940): Established peacetime conscription.

  • Destroyers-for-Bases Deal: Provided military support to Britain in exchange for Caribbean bases.

The 1940 Election

Roosevelt’s Third-Term Campaign

  • With rising international tensions, Roosevelt's re-election campaign reflected concerns over national security amidst speculation about his third term.

Wendell Willkie as a Challenger

  • Opposed Roosevelt yet shared views on preparedness and assistance to Britain.

Election Results

  • Roosevelt secured victory, influenced by economic recovery and fear of war under weak leadership.

Arsenal of Democracy

Post-Election Strategy

  • Roosevelt emphasized support for Britain as key to U.S. safety.

  • Four Freedoms Address (1941): articulated necessity for aiding Britain by justifying aid on foundational freedoms.

Lend-Lease Act

  • Enacted to permit arms aid to Allies without cash requirements, countering lingering isolationist sentiment.

U.S. Naval Interventions

  • As tensions heightened, Roosevelt ordered naval engagement against German vessels under "shoot-on-sight" orders.

Disputes with Japan

Economic Actions Post-Axis Alliance

  • Roosevelt's embargo on Japanese exports intensified tensions leading to confrontation over resources.

Pearl Harbor Attack

  • December 7, 1941, surprise attack marked the official U.S. entrance into WWII.

  • Roosevelt's following declaration of war underscored a shift in American foreign policy and military engagement.

Conclusion

U.S. Involvement in World War II

  • The war pitted the U.S. against fascism and militarism, solidifying its role on the world stage as a leader for democracy after years of isolation.

Interwar Foreign Policy

Overview of American Attitudes (1920s-1930s)

  • Isolationism due to disillusionment from WWI and European issues.

  • Congress rejected League of Nations, marking a retreat.

  • Shift to unilateralism with military interventions and treaties.

  • Efforts to prevent another world war failed.

Post-World War I Agreements

Republican Presidents and Peace Initiatives

  • Focus on reducing defense costs and promoting disarmament.

Washington Conference (1921)

  • Initiated by Secretary of State Hughes for naval disarmament.

  • Key treaties:

    • Five-Power Treaty: Naval strength ratios for battleships (U.S.: 5, UK: 5, Japan: 3, France: 1.67, Italy: 1.67).

    • Four-Power Treaty: U.S., France, UK, Japan to respect Pacific territories.

    • Nine-Power Treaty: Uphold Open Door policy in China.

Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)

  • Led by women to outlaw wars; signed by most nations but lacked enforcement.

Business and Diplomacy in the 1920s

Pro-Business Foreign Policy

  • Economic interests promoted to strengthen foreign ties.

Latin America Relations

  • U.S. concerned about Mexico’s ownership of oil and minerals; Ambassador Morrow negotiated protection.

  • U.S. maintained military presence in Nicaragua and Haiti.

  • Investments doubled (1919-1929).

Middle East Oil Interests

  • Secured oil-drilling rights against British control.

Economic Policies

  • Fordney-McCumber Tariff (1922): Increased duties on foreign goods, hindering European recovery.

War Debts and Reparations Issues

America's Shift from Debtor to Creditor

  • Transition from debtor to creditor by loaning over $10 billion post-war.

  • Europe struggled to repay debts due to tariffs and economic strains.

Dawes Plan (1924)

  • Set up payment structure with U.S. loans to Germany for reparations, but influence waned post-1929 market crash.

Herbert Hoover's Foreign Policy

  • Opposed firm foreign security commitments amidst isolationist sentiment.

Relations with Latin America

  • Hoover’s goodwill tour in 1929 focused on friendly relations and reduced military intervention.

Japanese Aggression in the 1930s

Manchuria Crisis (1931)

  • Japan invaded Manchuria, violating Open Door Policy;

    • Weak League of Nations response showed ineffectiveness.

Stimson Doctrine (1932)

  • U.S. declared non-recognition of regimes established by force.

The Rise of Fascism and Militarism

Economic and Political Consequences of the Depression

  • Dictatorships emerged in Japan, Italy, and Germany, forming Axis alliances by 1940.

Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany

  • Exploited post-war discontent and economic hardship.

Japanese Militarism

  • Expanded influence via invasions for resources, notably in China (1937).

American Isolationism

Public Sentiment

  • Isolationism gained popularity, intensified by the Manchuria invasion.

Neutrality Acts

  • Aimed at maintaining neutrality:

    • 1935: Arms shipment ban.

    • 1936: Loans and credit restrictions.

    • 1937: Restrictions on shipments to Spain.

America First Committee (1940)

  • Mobilized against U.S. involvement in WWII, opposing Roosevelt's pro-British stance.

Prelude to War

Rising Aggressions by Axis Powers

  • Key events included Ethiopia (1935), Rhineland (1936), invasion of China (1937), and Sudetenland (1938).

Quarantine Speech

  • Roosevelt called for action against aggressors; faced public resistance.

Preparedness and Military Buildup

  • Roosevelt urged military spending amid isolationist opposition.

Outbreak of WWII

  • Hitler's 1939 occupation of Czechoslovakia led to Britain and France supporting Poland, triggering war.

Shift in U.S. Foreign Policy

Roosevelt's Increasing Support to Allies

  • Cash-and-Carry: Allowed arms purchases supporting Britain while maintaining neutrality.

  • Selective Service Act (1940): Established conscription.

  • Destroyers-for-Bases Deal: Provided military support to Britain for bases.

The 1940 Election

Roosevelt’s Third-Term Campaign

  • Campaign reflecting national security concerns and international tension.

Wendell Willkie's Challenge

  • Opposed Roosevelt but shared views on preparedness.

Election Results

  • Roosevelt won, aided by economic recovery and war fears.

Arsenal of Democracy

Post-Election Strategy

  • Roosevelt emphasized support for Britain as vital for U.S. safety.

  • Four Freedoms Address (1941): Justified aid to Britain.

  • Lend-Lease Act: Permitted arms aid without cash requirements.

U.S. Naval Interventions

  • Naval engagement against German vessels under 'shoot-on-sight' orders.

Disputes with Japan

Economic Actions Post-Axis Alliance

  • Roosevelt's embargo on Japan heightened tensions.

Pearl Harbor Attack

  • December 7, 1941, attack marked U.S. entry into WWII.

Conclusion

  • U.S.'s war involvement against fascism solidified its role as a global democracy leader after years of isolation.