Preliminary Remarks on Slaves and Slave Labor in the Abbasid Empire

In the early Islamic period (1st–4th century A.H., 7th–10th century A.D.), Near Eastern urban society was profoundly dependent on slave labor, which was integrated into the economic and social fabric of everyday life. This paper delves into the lives of two distinct cohorts within Abbasid society: elite women singers, known as qiyān (singular: qayna), and Turkish commanders, who constituted a pivotal segment of the Abbasid slave military. The existing scholarship has often focused on these two groups; however, it frequently overlooks the broader scope of domestic slavery, governed by both Qur'anic stipulations and early Islamic jurisprudence, suggesting a rich contextual backdrop for their experiences and social standings. The available evidence indicates that a substantial majority of slaves were absorbed into domestic environments, particularly in urban households where they performed a variety of tasks ranging from domestic work to skilled labor.

The inquiry presented here also embarks on an exploration of the concept of upward social mobility for individuals from these specific cohorts. The trajectories of their careers present fascinating insights, as they commenced their journeys lacking social connections or standing upon entering the Islamic Near East. Despite the scarcity of comprehensive details concerning their activities, examining the intertwined historical paths of singers and military commanders provides a broader understanding of slavery's implications within the early Islamic society. Each case is contextualized within the larger framework of slavery during the Abbasid period, focusing primarily on two illustrative individual cases: Waṣīf, a highly esteemed Turkish officer, and Mahbūba, a female singer with uncertain origins but notable talent. Both individuals began their careers within the confines of expansive urban households, navigating through intricate social dynamics before achieving notable prominence.

Evidence from Abbasid Texts

Two critical historical texts serve as windows into the careers of Waṣīf and Mahbūba. The first, from the Kitāb al-buldān by al-Yaʿqūbī, details how the Abbasid prince, and subsequently caliph, Abū Isḥāq al-Muʿtaṣim (r. 833–842), acquired an array of young Turkish recruits for his military initiatives in Baghdad. This account not only describes the integration and training of these recruits into military protocols but also sheds light on the caliph's practice of distributing enslaved women to his soldiers to foster personal relationships, creating a unique dynamic that intertwined personal lives with military duties. Al-Yaʿqūbī specifically mentions that Waṣīf was integral to the military and political strategies of the early Abbasid regime, underscoring the operational dynamics of slavery that underpinned power during this pivotal era.

The second text, Murūj al-dhahab by al-Masʿūdī, chronicles Mahbūba's ascent at the court of al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861). It details her acquisition as a gift and the subsequent development of her close relationship with the caliph, illustrating not only her rise to prominence but also the cultural and social significance of female entertainers, predominantly made up of enslaved women, within Abbasid high society. While Mahbūba's elevated status is attributed to her artistic prowess, the narrative ultimately reflects on her tragic fate after a shift in political power post-al-Mutawakkil's assassination, highlighting the precarious nature of elevated status in a turbulent political landscape.

The Role of Women Singers and Turkish Commanders

Women singers in the Abbasid period, primarily trained in the domains of music and performance arts, were crucial to the courtly culture that defined elite life. These qiyān often served not only as entertainers but also as courtesans, providing companionship and, in some cases, sexual services to their owners. Their skills and performances commanded significant value in the high echelons of Abbasid society, contributing to both their allure and vulnerability amidst the fluctuating power dynamics of the caliphate. Socially, they were often positioned as status symbols for their owners, reflecting wealth and sophistication, yet their precarious status left them exposed to the whims of both societal norms and personal desires.

In contrast to their female counterparts, the Turkish commanders originated from the ranks of forcibly enlisted military slaves, many of whom were procured during periods of civil unrest and conflict. Initially seen as “foreigners,” especially from regions in Central Asia, these soldiers became essential for establishing military might and wielding political authority within the Abbasid empire. Occupying various roles within the military structure, from guards to leaders of military campaigns, they highlighted the diverse and complex nature of slavery in Abbasid society, showcasing how enslaved individuals could gain power through military accomplishments.