Nationalism and Revolutions (1750-1900)

Joseph de Maistre ( $1753$ - $1821$ ) and Edmund Burke represented conservative opposition to Enlightenment-influenced revolutions, viewing them as disruptive and bloody.
Revolutionary movements focused on the key ideals of progress, reason, and natural law.

Roots: Enlightenment philosophy and physiocractic defense of free-market ideas in opposition to English mercantilism.
Declaration of Independence: Adopted on July $4$ , $1776$ ; Thomas Jefferson integrated John Locke's concept of "unalienable rights" into the document.
Outcome: Colonists triumphed in $1783$ with military assistance from France.

Context: Following British annexation in $1840$ , increasing pressure for Maori land led to a series of conflicts known as the New Zealand Wars.
Result: A collective sense of Maori nationalism emerged despite an eventual British victory by $1872$ .

Causes: Economic crisis from war spending and voting inequality in the Estates-General where commoners made up $97\,\%$ of society.
Actions: The National Assembly was formed and the Bastille was stormed on July $14$ , $1789$ ; the Declaration of the Rights of Man established basic human rights.
Outcome: The Jacobins' Reign of Terror preceded the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who became emperor in $1804$ .

Rebellion: Enslaved people and Maroons on the island of Hispaniola (St. Domingue) revolted under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture in $1791$ .
Independence: Haiti achieved permanent independence in $1804$ under Jean-Jacques Dessalines, becoming the first black-led country in the Western Hemisphere.

Conflict: Wealthy Creoles opposed Spanish mercantilism and the political dominance of peninsulares.
Simón Bolívar: A liberal leader who utilized his wealth and military success to form Gran Colombia; he outlined his Enlightenment ideals in the "Jamaica Letter" ( $1815$ ).
Consequences: Success led to the rise of caudillos and continued social conservatism for women and indigenous peoples; Manuela Sáenz was a rare exception, rising to the rank of colonel.

Spanish Colonies: Lola Rodríguez de Tió critiqued Spanish rule in Puerto Rico, while the Propaganda Movement in the Philippines eventually led to revolution following the execution of José Rizal in $1896$ .
Italian Unification: Count di Cavour (realpolitik), Giuseppe Mazzini (Risorgimento), and Giuseppe Garibaldi (Red Shirts) unified the peninsula by $1870$ .
German Unification: Prussian leader Otto von Bismarck utilized three wars to establish the German Empire in $1871$ .

Greek Independence: Resurgence of cultural pride and Enlightenment principles led to independence from the Ottoman Empire by $1832$ .
Ottomanism: An $1870\text{s}$ - $1880\text{s}$ movement aimed at state unification through standard curriculum; the attempt intensified separatist desires among ethnic and religious groups.