IB SL Psychology Paper 1 - Full Cheat Sheet
Maguire et al. (2000) — MRI & Neuroplasticity
Aim: To investigate whether structural changes could be detected in the brains of London taxi drivers with extensive navigation experience, specifically focusing on the hippocampus due to its known role in spatial memory.
Method:
Participants included 16 male, right-handed London taxi drivers who had completed extensive training and testing to obtain their taxi license, and 50 male, right-handed non-taxi drivers as a control group. The average experience as a taxi driver was 14.3 years.
MRI scans were used to assess the volume of the hippocampus. The scans were analyzed using VBM (Voxel-Based Morphometry) to compare the grey matter density in the brains of taxi drivers and controls.
Further analysis involved measuring the anterior, posterior, and body of the hippocampus in both groups.
Findings:
Taxi drivers had a significantly greater amount of grey matter volume in their posterior hippocampus compared to controls.
Control subjects had a relatively greater grey matter volume in their anterior hippocampus compared to the taxi drivers.
A significant positive correlation was found between the amount of time spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the right posterior hippocampus. This suggests that the longer they drove, the larger this brain region became.
Conclusion:
The structure of the brain can be altered by environmental demands and extensive practice.
The study provides evidence for neuroplasticity, indicating that the hippocampus responds to spatial memory demands by increasing in volume in the posterior region to accommodate detailed spatial representations of London's streets.
Strengths:
High ecological validity as the study investigated a real-world skill (navigation).
The use of MRI technology provided detailed and non-invasive structural imaging of the brain.
VBM allowed for objective and quantitative measurement of grey matter volume.
Limitations:
The sample was limited to male taxi drivers from London, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations (e.g., females, individuals from other cities).
The study was a quasi-experiment as the independent variable (being a taxi driver) was not manipulated by the researchers, meaning the cause-and-effect relationship could not be definitively established. It is possible that individuals with larger hippocampi are more likely to become taxi drivers.
It doesn't account for other factors that might influence hippocampal volume, such as age or overall health.
Draganski et al. (2004) — Neuroplasticity & Learning
Aim: To investigate whether learning a new motor skill, such as juggling, would lead to structural changes in the brain.
Method:
24 participants, with no prior juggling experience, were randomly allocated into two groups: the jugglers and the non-jugglers (control group).
Brain scans (MRI) were performed on all participants before the start of the experiment to serve as a baseline.
Participants in the juggler group were trained to master a three-ball cascade juggling routine over a period of three months. They were then scanned again.
After the three months, the jugglers stopped practicing juggling for another three months, after which a final brain scan was conducted. The control group had brain scans at the same intervals but did not learn juggling.
Findings:
Jugglers showed a significant increase in grey matter in several brain areas, including the mid-temporal area and the left posterior intraparietal sulcus, which are associated with visual and motor coordination.
After they stopped juggling, the amount of grey matter in these areas decreased significantly but remained greater than at the baseline.
There were no significant changes in the brain structure of the control group over the duration of the study.
Conclusion:
Practicing a new motor skill leads to structural changes in the brain.
The increase in grey matter in the juggling group suggests that learning and mastering new skills can result in neuroplasticity, specifically in regions associated with the learned skill. The decrease in grey matter after the cessation of juggling indicates that these changes are reversible when the skill is no longer practiced.
Strengths:
Controlled experimental design with random allocation of participants to conditions.
Longitudinal study design with baseline scans allowed for comparison of changes over time.
MRI scans provided detailed structural information about the brain.
Limitations:
Small sample size, which might limit the generalizability of the findings.
Short-term study focusing on a specific skill (juggling). Longer-term studies could reveal more about sustained neuroplastic changes.
The study only looked at structural changes (grey matter volume) but did not explore functional changes in the brain.
Martinez & Kesner (1991) — Neurotransmitters (Acetylcholine) & Memory
Aim: To determine the role of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter, in memory formation.
Method:
Experimental design using rats that were trained to run a maze.
After training, the rats were divided into three experimental groups:
Group 1: Injected with scopolamine, which blocks acetylcholine receptors, reducing the amount of available acetylcholine.
Group 2: Injected with physostigmine, which blocks cholinesterase, the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, effectively boosting the levels of acetylcholine.
Group 3: Control group, which received a saline injection (placebo).
The dependent variable was the number of errors made while running the maze, and the time taken to complete the maze.
Findings:
The scopolamine group (low acetylcholine) exhibited significantly slower maze completion and made more errors compared to the control group.
The physostigmine group (high acetylcholine) performed better than the control group and made fewer errors.
Conclusion:
Acetylcholine plays a crucial role in memory consolidation and retrieval.
Reduced levels of acetylcholine impair memory and learning, while increased levels enhance these processes.
Strengths:
Controlled laboratory experiment demonstrating a clear cause-and-effect relationship between acetylcholine levels and memory performance.
Limitations:
Animal study raising ethical concerns about the use of animals in research, as well as challenges in generalizing findings to humans.
The maze task is an artificial memory task, which may limit the ecological validity of the findings.
Newcomer et al. (1999) — Hormones (Cortisol) & Memory
Aim: To investigate the effect of chronic stress and elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, on verbal declarative memory.
Method:
Participants were 51 healthy adults. The experiment used a double-blind, placebo-controlled design.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions:
Group 1: High-dose cortisol group, received 160 mg of cortisol per day, mimicking chronic stress levels.
Group 2: Low-dose cortisol group, received 40 mg of cortisol per day, mimicking mild stress levels.
Group 3: Placebo group, received an inactive tablet.
The study lasted for four days. Verbal declarative memory was tested before the administration of cortisol and each day during the four-day period. Participants listened to a paragraph and were then asked to recall its content.
Findings:
The high cortisol group showed a significant decrease in verbal declarative memory performance compared to the placebo group. Their ability to recall the paragraph was significantly impaired.
The low cortisol group experienced a mild impairment in memory performance, but it was not as severe as the high cortisol group.
There was no significant change in memory performance in the placebo group.
Conclusion:
Elevated cortisol levels due to chronic stress can impair verbal declarative memory. High levels of cortisol interfere with the encoding of new information and the retrieval of existing memories.
Strengths:
Double-blind procedure minimized the potential for researcher and participant bias.
Controlled experiment allowed for the establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship between cortisol levels and memory performance.
Real-world applications related to understanding the impact of chronic stress on cognitive functions, especially in relation to exams and other stressful situations.
Limitations:
Short-term study only examined the effects of cortisol on memory over a four-day period. The long-term effects of chronic stress on memory were not assessed.
The memory test was artificial and may not reflect real-life memory tasks. Ecological validity may be limited.
Wedekind (1995) — Pheromones & Mate Selection
Aim: To investigate whether women are inclined to prefer the scent of men with dissimilar Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) genes.
Method:
The study involved 49 female and 44 male students. Men were asked to wear a cotton t-shirt for two consecutive nights during sleep. They were instructed to remain odorless by avoiding perfumes, scented soaps, deodorants, and sexual activity. They also followed a standard diet.
After the men returned the t-shirts, the women were asked to smell seven t-shirts each. Six of these shirts were worn by different men, and one was unworn as a control. The women rated the shirts for pleasantness and sexiness on a scale of 0 to 10.
Women were also tested to identify their MHC genes' similarity to those of the t-shirt wearers.
Findings:
Women favored the scent of men with MHC genes different from their own, but this preference was reversed in women using oral contraceptives.
The scents of MHC-dissimilar men were rated as more pleasant, indicative of a potential mate preference.
Conclusion:
Pheromones, particularly those related to MHC genes, might influence human mate choice by promoting attraction to genetically diverse partners.
Strengths:
Controlled, double-blind study minimized potential biases.
Supports evolutionary theories about the role of genetic diversity in mate selection.
Limitations:
Subjectivity of smell perception varies among individuals.
Cultural and environmental factors, which were not fully controlled, can also influence mate preference.
Bartlett (1932) — Schema Theory
Aim: To investigate how memory of a story is affected by previous knowledge and cultural schemas.
Method:
The study used a repeated reproduction technique where British participants read a Native American folk tale titled 'The War of the Ghosts'.
Participants were then asked to recall the story after varying periods of time (ranging from a few minutes to several years). They reproduced the story from memory, and their reproductions were analyzed to identify changes and distortions.
Findings:
Participants altered unfamiliar elements of the story to align with their own cultural norms and expectations.
The story became shorter with each retelling as participants omitted or simplified details.
Distortions occurred as participants unconsciously changed the story to make it more understandable and coherent from their cultural perspective (e.g., canoes were changed to boats, and hunting seals was changed to fishing).
Conclusion:
Memory is reconstructive and not an exact recording of events. It is influenced by pre-existing schemas and cultural expectations, leading to distortions and alterations in recall.
Strengths:
Naturalistic task involving storytelling, which allowed for the observation of memory processes in a more ecological setting.
Demonstrated the influence of cultural schemas on memory, highlighting the role of culture in cognitive processes.
Limitations:
Low reliability due to the lack of standardization in the reproduction process.
Vague methodology that makes it difficult to replicate the study precisely.
Landry & Bartling (2011) — Working Memory Model
Aim: To investigate if articulatory suppression would influence recall of a visually presented list of phonologically dissimilar letters.
Method:
Participants were 32 university students. Independent samples design consisting of two conditions: a control (no articulatory suppression) and an experimental condition (articulatory suppression).
In the articulatory suppression task, participants were required to repeatedly say the numbers '1' and '2' aloud while memorizing a list of letters. The control group memorized the letters without any concurrent task.
Participants were shown a list of seven letters, one at a time, for a duration of two seconds each. After a short delay, they were asked to recall the letters in the correct order.
Findings:
Participants undergoing articulatory suppression demonstrated significantly poorer memory for the letters compared to the control group.
The control group performed significantly better, recalling the letters more accurately.
Conclusion:
Articulatory suppression disrupts the phonological loop, reducing its capacity to maintain verbal information. This provides evidence for the Working Memory Model and supports the idea that the phonological loop is essential for short-term retention of verbal material.
Strengths:
Controlled experiment allowed for isolation of the effect of articulatory suppression on memory performance.
Supports a theoretical model of working memory and provides empirical evidence for the phonological loop's function.
Limitations:
Low ecological validity due to the artificial nature of the letter memorization task.
Kahneman & Tversky (1974) — System 1 Thinking (Anchoring Bias)
Aim: To investigate the effects of anchoring bias on decision-making.
Method:
Participants were asked to make quick estimations of mathematical problems.
In the ascending condition, the problem was . In the descending condition, the problem was . Participants were asked to estimate the answer within 5 seconds, making it impossible to compute the correct answer.
Findings:
Participants who started with the higher numbers (descending condition) gave higher overall estimates , while those who started with the lower numbers (ascending condition) gave lower estimates . The actual answer is 40,320.
Conclusion:
Initial anchors significantly influence estimates, even when those anchors are irrelevant or arbitrary. This demonstrates the effect of anchoring bias, where individuals rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered, even if it's not accurate.
Strengths:
Clear demonstration of a cognitive bias (anchoring bias) that affects decision-making.
Repeatable experiment with consistent results.
Limitations:
Artificial task may not fully reflect real-world complexity in decision-making.
Loftus & Palmer (1974) — Reconstructive Memory
Aim: To investigate how the use of language in eyewitness testimony can affect memory recall.
Method:
Participants watched a video of a car crash and were then asked specific questions about what they saw. The key manipulation was the verb used in one of the questions.
Participants were divided into groups, each of which was asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they [smashed / collided / bumped / hit / contacted] each other?"
One week later, participants were asked whether they saw broken glass in the video, even though there was no broken glass.
Findings:
The stronger the verb used (e.g., 'smashed'), the higher the speed estimates given by participants. For example, 'smashed' yielded an average speed estimate of 40.8 mph, while 'contacted' yielded an average estimate of 31.8 mph.
Participants in the 'smashed' condition were more likely to report seeing broken glass in the video than those in the 'hit' condition, even though there was no broken glass.
Conclusion:
Memory is reconstructive and can be influenced by post-event information, such as the language used in questioning. The wording of questions can alter memories by activating schemas that influence perception and recall.
Strengths:
Controlled experiment allowed for the isolation of the effect of language on memory recall.
Applied to real-world situations, such as eyewitness testimony, demonstrating its relevance to legal and judicial processes.
Limitations:
Lacks ecological validity because participants watched a video rather than experiencing a real car crash.
Potential for demand characteristics, where participants may alter their responses based on what they think the researcher expects to find.
Sharot et al. (2007) — Emotion & Flashbulb Memory
Aim: To investigate the neural basis of flashbulb memory (vivid, detailed memories of significant events), specifically related to the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
Method:
The study used fMRI to measure brain activity while participants recalled events from 9/11 and other events from their past.
Participants were divided into two groups based on their proximity to the World Trade Center during the 9/11 attacks: those who were downtown (close) and those who were midtown (far).
Participants were asked to recall details of 9/11 as well as personal events from around the same time.
Findings:
Individuals who were closer to the World Trade Center during the 9/11 attacks showed stronger activation of the amygdala (a brain region associated with emotion and memory) when recalling 9/11 memories compared to recalling other events.
Participants who were further away showed no significant difference in amygdala activation between 9/11 memories and other events.
Conclusion:
Flashbulb memories are associated with increased activity in the amygdala, particularly when the event is emotionally charged and personally relevant. The closer an individual was to the event, the more emotionally intense and detailed their memory.
Strengths:
Biological data via fMRI provided objective measures of brain activity, enhancing the validity of the findings.
Real-life event allowed for the study of memory processes in a naturalistic setting.
Limitations:
Correlational study cannot establish a cause-and-effect relationship between amygdala activation and flashbulb memory formation.
Not all participants exhibited flashbulb memories, and the intensity of memories varied across individuals.
Tajfel et al. (1970) — Social Identity Theory
Aim: To investigate whether being assigned to a group is sufficient to create in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination.
Method:
Schoolboys were randomly assigned to groups based on arbitrary criteria (e.g., preference for a certain artist or coin flip).
Participants were then asked to allocate points (representing money) to members of both their own group (in-group) and the other group (out-group).
Participants were not allowed to allocate points to themselves, ensuring that their decisions would not directly benefit them personally.
Findings:
Boys consistently allocated more points to members of their own group compared to members of the other group, even though the groups were based on meaningless criteria.
Participants also showed a tendency to maximize the difference between the in-group and out-group, even if it meant sacrificing overall points.
Conclusion:
The mere act of being categorized into a group is sufficient to create in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination.
Supports Social Identity Theory, which posits that individuals derive self-esteem from group membership and seek to enhance the positive distinctiveness of their in-group.
Strengths:
Controlled experiment allowed for the isolation of the effect of group membership on intergroup behavior.
Supports the principles of Social Identity Theory and provides evidence for the minimal group paradigm.
Limitations:
Lacks ecological validity due to the artificiality of the group assignment and the point allocation task.
Participants may have guessed the aim of the study, leading to demand characteristics.
Hamilton & Gifford (1976) — Stereotype Formation
Aim: To investigate how illusory correlations can lead to stereotype formation.
Method:
Participants read descriptions of individuals from two groups, Group A and Group B.
The descriptions contained both positive and negative behaviors, but the proportion of negative behaviors was the same for both groups.
Group B was smaller than Group A, making it the minority group.
Participants were then asked to attribute behaviors to each group.
Findings:
Participants associated negative behaviors more frequently with Group B (the minority group) than with Group A, even though the proportion of negative behaviors was the same for both groups.
Conclusion:
Illusory correlations can lead to the formation of stereotypes by causing individuals to overestimate the association between minority groups and negative behaviors.
Stereotypes can be formed due to cognitive biases rather than factual information.
Strengths:
Supports the theory of stereotype formation and provides insight into the cognitive processes underlying prejudice and discrimination.
Controlled experiment allowed for the isolation of the effect of group size on stereotype formation.
Limitations:
Low ecological validity due to the artificial nature of the task and the simplicity of the group descriptions.
Odden & Rochat (2004) — Enculturation
Aim: To study the role of observational learning in enculturation by examining how children in Samoa learn cultural norms and practices.
Method:
Researchers conducted a longitudinal study in a Samoan village over a period of 25 months.
They observed children's daily activities and interactions with adults, focusing on how children learn skills and behaviors through observation and imitation.
Researchers also conducted interviews with children and adults to gather additional information about cultural beliefs and practices.
Findings:
Samoan children learned essential skills, such as fishing and weaving, through observation of their parents and other adults.
Children were not directly taught these skills but rather learned by watching and imitating.
Cultural norms and values were transmitted implicitly through everyday interactions and observations.
Conclusion:
Enculturation occurs primarily through observational learning in collectivist cultures like Samoa, where children learn cultural norms and practices by watching and imitating adults.
Strengths:
Naturalistic observation allowed for the study of enculturation in a real-world setting.
High ecological validity due to the study of cultural processes in their natural context.
Limitations:
Not generalizable to all cultures, as the study focused on a specific collectivist culture (Samoa).
Low control over extraneous variables, making it difficult to isolate the specific factors influencing enculturation.
Lueck & Wilson (2010) — Acculturation & Stress
Aim: To investigate the factors predicting acculturative stress in Asian Americans.
Method:
The study involved over 2,000 Asian Americans with different cultural backgrounds.
Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with participants to gather information about their acculturation experiences, stress levels, language proficiency, and social support networks.
Participants were also assessed on their cultural identity and their experiences with discrimination.
Findings:
Participants who were bilingual and had strong ties to their cultural heritage experienced lower levels of acculturative stress. Those that felt culturally accepted within their community were the least stressed.
Participants who experienced discrimination and had weaker social support networks reported higher levels of acculturative stress.
Conclusion:
Cultural identity, language proficiency, social support, and discrimination are important factors in predicting acculturative stress among Asian Americans.
Maintaining strong ties to one's cultural heritage and having supportive social networks can buffer against the negative effects of acculturation.
Strengths:
Large sample size enhances the generalizability of the findings.
Real-world application in understanding the challenges faced by immigrants and informing interventions to promote successful acculturation.
Limitations:
Self-report data may be subject to bias.
Correlational study cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships between the measured variables.
Asch (1951) — Conformity
Aim: To investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform.
Method:
Participants were placed in a room with a group of confederates (actors who were aware of the study's purpose).
Participants were shown a standard line and three comparison lines and were asked to identify which of the comparison lines matched the standard line in length.
In some trials, the confederates unanimously gave an incorrect answer, creating social pressure on the participant to conform.
Findings:
On average, over 70% of participants conformed to the incorrect answer at least once during the trials.
Participants reported conforming due to normative social influence, wanting to fit in with the group and avoid social disapproval.
Conclusion:
Individuals are willing to conform to group pressure, even when the group's answer is clearly incorrect.
Conformity is influenced by normative social influence, where individuals conform to gain social acceptance and avoid rejection.
Strengths:
Clear