NOTES AI FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

International Relations A field of study that examines relationships among states and other international actors, including conflict, cooperation, trade, and diplomacy.

Paradigm A broad theoretical perspective used to explain and understand international relations.

Realism A paradigm that emphasizes power, national interest, security, competition, and state survival in an international system without a central world government.

Liberalism A paradigm that emphasizes cooperation, international institutions, democracy, trade, and the possibility of mutual benefits between states.

Constructivism A paradigm that explains how identities, ideas, culture, norms, and shared beliefs shape international behavior and state interests.

Marxism An approach that emphasizes capitalism, class conflict, economic power, and inequality in international relations.

Dependency Theory An approach arguing that poorer countries can remain economically dependent on wealthy countries because of unequal relationships in the global economy.

Feminist Critiques Approaches that examine how gender, patriarchy, and unequal power relations shape international politics.

Anarchy An international system without a central world government that has supreme authority over all states; it does not mean complete chaos.

State A political entity with a population, territory, government, and sovereignty.

National Interest The goals a state considers important, such as security, economic prosperity, independence, and influence.

Power The ability of an actor to influence others or achieve desired outcomes.

Norm A shared expectation about what behavior is appropriate or acceptable.

Identity The way an actor understands itself and how it identifies other actors, groups, or countries.

Levels of Analysis Three perspectives for explaining international events: the international system, the state, and the individual.

International System Level of Analysis Explains events through the structure of the international system, the distribution of power, and relationships among states.

State Level of Analysis Explains events through a country's government, political system, economy, institutions, and society.

Individual Level of Analysis Explains events through leaders' personalities, beliefs, perceptions, experiences, and decisions.

Polarity The number of major power centers in the international system.

Unipolarity An international system with one dominant power center.

Bipolarity An international system with two major power centers.

Multipolarity An international system with three or more major power centers.

Sovereignty A state's authority to govern its territory and make its own decisions without being legally subordinate to another state.

Nation A group of people who share a sense of identity, often based on culture, history, language, or shared experiences.

Nation-State A state in which the political boundaries largely correspond to a nation with a shared identity.

Government The institutions and people responsible for making and enforcing a state's policies.

Elite A person or small group with significant political influence or decision-making power.

Public Opinion The views and attitudes held by members of the public about political issues and government policies.

Democracy A political system in which citizens have meaningful opportunities to participate in choosing their government and influencing political decisions.

Regime The rules and institutions that determine how political power is organized and exercised.

Balance of Power A distribution of power in which no single state or group can easily dominate the others.

Balancing Building military capabilities or forming alliances to counter a powerful or threatening state.

Bandwagoning Aligning with a powerful or threatening state, often to gain protection or benefits.

Statecraft The use of a state's resources and influence to achieve foreign policy goals.

Foreign Policy A government's goals and actions toward other countries and international issues.

Hard Power Influencing another actor through force, threats, or material pressure, such as military action or economic sanctions.

Soft Power Influencing others through attraction, culture, values, reputation, and persuasion.

Smart Power The strategic combination of hard power and soft power to achieve foreign policy goals.

Tangible Power Resources Resources that can be measured or physically possessed, such as military equipment, money, population, and natural resources.

Intangible Power Resources Less measurable sources of power, such as leadership, reputation, morale, diplomatic skill, and national unity.

Military Power A state's ability to use or threaten armed force to influence other actors.

Economic Power The ability to influence others through wealth, trade, investment, aid, sanctions, and access to markets.

Diplomacy Communication and negotiation between states to manage relationships and resolve disagreements.

Bilateral Diplomacy Diplomacy conducted between two countries.

Multilateral Diplomacy Diplomacy involving three or more countries.

Public Diplomacy Efforts by a government to influence foreign populations' opinions through communication, culture, education, and outreach.

Economic Statecraft The use of economic tools, such as trade, foreign aid, tariffs, and sanctions, to achieve political goals.

Foreign Aid Money, supplies, services, or other assistance provided to another country.

Economic Sanctions Economic restrictions imposed to pressure a state or actor to change its behavior.

Tariff A tax placed on imported or exported goods, most commonly imports in modern trade policy.

Deterrence Discouraging an actor from taking an action by threatening consequences.

Coercion Using threats or pressure to make another actor change its behavior.

Compellence Pressuring an actor to take a particular action or stop an existing action.

Statecraft Audience The actor a state is trying to influence, such as another government, foreign citizens, allies, or domestic voters.

Statecraft Goal The desired outcome a state seeks through foreign policy, such as security, influence, economic growth, or peace.

Rational Actor Model A decision-making model in which a state identifies its goals, evaluates options and costs, and chooses what it believes will produce the best outcome.

Organizational Process Model A model explaining decisions as the result of established procedures, routines, and standard practices within government organizations.

Bureaucratic Politics Model A model explaining decisions as outcomes of bargaining, competition, and compromise among government officials and agencies.

Decision-Making Process of identifying a problem, considering possible actions, and choosing a response.

Miscalculation An incorrect judgment about another actor's intentions, capabilities, or likely response.

National Security The protection of a state's territory, population, government, and vital interests from threats.

Absolute Gains The total benefits an actor receives from cooperation, regardless of how much another actor gains.

Relative Gains Benefits measured in comparison with what another actor gains, especially when differences may affect power.

Security Dilemma A situation in which one state's efforts to increase its security make another state feel threatened, causing both to become less secure.

Arms Race Competition in which states continually build up their military capabilities in response to one another.

Balance of Power Politics Actions taken by states to prevent another state from becoming overwhelmingly powerful.

Hegemony A condition in which one state holds a dominant position of power or influence in the international system.

Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST) The argument that a dominant power can help maintain a stable international economic order by supporting rules, institutions, and an open trading system.

War Organized armed violence between political actors, generally involving sustained fighting.

Political Violence The use or threat of physical force to achieve political goals.

Interstate War Armed conflict between two or more states.

Intrastate War A war occurring within a state, usually between a government and organized armed groups or between competing groups.

Civil War A sustained armed conflict within a country involving organized groups fighting for political control, territory, or other major objectives.

Asymmetric Warfare Conflict between opponents with significantly different military capabilities, resources, or methods.

Guerrilla Warfare Irregular warfare using tactics such as ambushes, raids, and hit-and-run attacks instead of relying on conventional battles.

Insurgency An organized movement that challenges or attempts to overthrow an established government or authority through rebellion.

Terrorism The use or threat of violence to intimidate a population or influence political decisions, commonly involving attacks on civilians or other noncombatants.

Nonviolent Resistance Organized opposition that does not rely on physical violence, such as peaceful protests, strikes, and boycotts.

Conventional Warfare Armed conflict using organized military forces and relatively traditional weapons and battlefield tactics.

Cyber Warfare The use of cyber operations to disrupt, damage, or interfere with another actor's computer systems or digital infrastructure for strategic purposes.

Preemption Using force first because an attack by an opponent is believed to be imminent.

Preventive War War intended to stop a potential future threat from becoming more powerful, rather than responding to an imminent attack.

Collective Security An arrangement in which states cooperate to respond to aggression against a member of the international community.

Collective Defense An arrangement in which members agree to defend one another if a member is attacked.

Jus ad Bellum The legal principles governing when the use of force or going to war is justified.

Jus in Bello The rules governing how parties must conduct themselves during armed conflict, including protections for civilians and other protected persons.

International Humanitarian Law International law that limits the effects of armed conflict and protects people who are not, or are no longer, participating in hostilities.

Laws of War Legal rules regulating the use of force and the conduct of armed conflict.

International Cooperation When states or other international actors coordinate their actions to achieve shared or compatible goals.

International Law Rules and legal obligations that govern relations among states and other international actors.

International Organization An institution established by states or other actors to address shared issues and coordinate activities across borders.

International Institution A broader system of rules, norms, and procedures that shapes how international actors interact.

United Nations (UN) An international organization that promotes international peace and security, cooperation, human rights, and development.

International Regime A set of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures governing a particular issue area in international relations.

Neoliberal Institutionalism A liberal approach arguing that international institutions can help states cooperate even when there is no world government.

Transaction Costs The time, effort, and resources required to negotiate, establish, monitor, and enforce agreements.

Cheating Breaking an agreement or failing to cooperate in order to gain an advantage.

Prisoner's Dilemma A situation in which actors may choose not to cooperate because each fears being exploited, even though mutual cooperation would benefit both.

Shadow of the Future The expectation of repeated future interactions, which can encourage cooperation because cheating today may damage future relationships.

Reciprocity Responding to another actor's behavior with similar cooperation or noncooperation.

Trust Confidence that another actor will behave in a reliable or cooperative way.

Monitoring Observing whether actors follow an agreement or fulfill their commitments.

Enforcement Measures used to encourage or compel actors to follow rules or agreements.

Free Trade International trade with reduced barriers, such as tariffs and quotas.

Protectionism Government policies that protect domestic industries from foreign competition through measures such as tariffs, quotas, or subsidies.

Economic Interdependence A condition in which countries rely on one another through trade, investment, finance, and supply chains.

Trade Agreement An agreement between countries establishing rules or reducing barriers for trade.

Absolute Advantage The ability to produce a good or service using fewer resources than another producer.

Comparative Advantage The ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another producer.

Democratic Peace Theory The argument that established democracies are less likely to fight wars against one another.

Liberal Peace Theory The argument that liberal institutions, democratic governance, economic connections, and cooperation can help promote peace.

Commercial Peace Theory The argument that trade and economic interdependence create incentives to avoid war because conflict can damage economic benefits.

McDonald's Peace Theory A popular version of the commercial peace argument suggesting that countries integrated into the global economy may be less likely to fight wars with one another; it is not a guarantee of peace.

Starbucks Peace Theory A popular extension of commercial peace arguments linking globalization, consumer culture, economic development, and peace; it is not a guarantee that countries will not fight.

Economic Interdependence and Peace The idea that countries dependent on one another economically may avoid conflict because war can disrupt valuable trade and investment.

Capitalism An economic system in which private individuals or businesses own productive resources and market exchange plays a major role.

Globalization The growing connections and interdependence among countries through trade, finance, technology, migration, communication, and culture.

Economic Inequality Differences in wealth, income, resources, or economic opportunities among individuals, groups, or countries.

Realist View of War War can result from competition for power, threats to national security, fear, and the absence of a central world government.

Liberal View of War War can result from failed cooperation, weak institutions, economic conflicts, or political conditions that make peaceful solutions difficult.

Constructivist View of War War can result from hostile identities, beliefs, historical narratives, and norms that shape how actors perceive one another.

Realist View of International Organizations International organizations often reflect the interests and influence of powerful states.

Liberal View of International Organizations International organizations help states cooperate by providing information, creating rules, and facilitating negotiations.

Constructivist View of International Organizations International organizations can shape shared norms, identities, expectations, and beliefs about appropriate behavior.

Realist View of Trade States may trade for economic benefits but worry that competitors will gain more power through trade.

Liberal View of Trade Trade can create mutual benefits and increase the economic costs of conflict.

Constructivist View of Trade Ideas about markets, economic identity, and appropriate behavior influence trade policies and relationships.

Realist View of Democracy A state's security and power are central; democracy alone does not eliminate international conflict.

Liberal View of Democracy Democratic institutions and accountability can help promote peace, especially between established democracies.

Constructivist View of Democracy The meaning and legitimacy of democracy are shaped by political ideas, identities, and shared norms.

Realist View of Cooperation Cooperation is difficult because states fear cheating, dependence, and unequal gains that could benefit rivals.

Liberal View of Cooperation Cooperation is possible when institutions, repeated interactions, and shared interests help states overcome common problems.

Constructivist View of Cooperation Cooperation becomes easier when actors develop shared identities, trust, and norms.

Realism and Anarchy Because there is no central world government, states must consider their own survival and security.

Liberalism and Anarchy Even without a world government, states can cooperate through institutions, agreements, trade, and repeated interactions.

Constructivism and Anarchy Anarchy does not determine one inevitable pattern of behavior; the meanings states attach to it and their relationships also matter.